VII Glossary

15-15 Rule: Suggests consuming or administering 15 grams of a carbohydrate, followed by a 15-minute wait and then remeasurement of blood glucose level to assess if blood glucose has returned to normal levels. (Chapter 7.5)

Acanthosis nigricans: Hyperpigmentation often found in the axilla, groin, and folds of the neck. (Chapter 7.5)

Addisonian crisis: Life-threatening medical emergency that occurs when the body’s need for the hormones cortisol and aldosterone exceeds the available supply. (Chapter 7.7)

Adrenal cortex: Responsible for producing a group of steroid hormones known as corticosteroids. (Chapter 7.2)

Adrenal glands: Small glands located at the top of each kidney. (Chapter 7.2)

Adrenal medulla: Responsible for producing epinephrine and norepinephrine. (Chapter 7.2)

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Regulates the release of glucocorticoid hormone (cortisol) by the adrenal gland. (Chapter 7.2)

Aldosterone: A mineralocorticoid hormone produced by the adrenal gland that regulates the salt and water balance of the body in the kidneys by increasing the retention of sodium and water and excreting potassium. (Chapter 7.7)

Alpha cells: Secrete a hormone called glucagon. (Chapter 7.2)

Amenorrhea: Absence of menstrual periods. (Chapter 7.6)

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Regulates blood osmolarity by targeting the kidneys to increase water reabsorption. (Chapter 7.2)

Beta cells: Secrete insulin which facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells from the bloodstream. (Chapter 7.2)

Beta endorphin: Possesses morphine-like effects and plays a role in pain management and natural reward circuits such as feeding, drinking, sex, and maternal behavior. (Chapter 7.2)

Blood osmolarity: Concentration of solutes in the blood plasma. (Chapter 7.2)

Carbohydrate counting: Diabetic meal planning strategy in which individuals keep track of the total grams of carbohydrates they consume in a meal, regardless of the food source. (Chapter 7.5)

Charcot joint: Chronic joint damage as the result of neuropathy. (Chapter 7.5)

Chvostek’s sign: A classic sign of acute hypocalcemia and is an involuntary twitching of facial muscles when the facial nerve is tapped. (Chapter 7.8)

Continuous glucose sensor (CGS): A medical device designed to monitor and track blood glucose levels in the interstitial fluid. (Chapter 7.5)

Corticosteroids: Group of steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex; examples include mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. (Chapter 7.2)

Cortisol: The most important glucocorticoid because it plays a crucial role in metabolism, immune response, and the body’s response to stress. (Chapter 7.2, Chapter 7.7)

C-peptide: Generally found in amounts in the blood equal to the amount of insulin. (Chapter 7.5)

Cushing’s disease: Typically caused by a benign tumor in the adrenal gland that causes excess hormone production. (Chapter 7.7)

Cushing’s syndrome: Caused by excess glucocorticoid blood levels caused by medication therapy for another medical problem, such as COPD or immunosuppressive therapy after an organ transplant. (Chapter 7.7)

Delta cells: Secrete somatostatin. (Chapter 7.2)

Diabetes insipidus (DI): Rare medical condition characterized by excessive thirst and the excretion of large amounts of very dilute urine. (Chapter 7.2)

Diabetes mellitus (DM): A chronic medical condition marked by persistently elevated blood glucose levels. (Chapter 7.5)

Diabetes nephropathy: Kidney disease as the result of ongoing diabetes. (Chapter 7.5)

Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA): Occurs during severe hyperglycemia episodes if the client’s pancreas is no longer producing insulin. (Chapter 7.5)

Endocrine role: Refers to the production of glucagon and insulin by clusters of cells called islet cells to regulate blood glucose levels and keep them within a healthy range. (Chapter 7.2)

Epinephrine: A catecholamine produced by the adrenal medulla. (Chapter 7.7)

Estrogen: Hormone that promotes the development of breasts and the maturation of the uterus. (Chapter 7.2)

Exchange system: A meal planning method that categorizes foods into three main groups: carbohydrates (CHO), meat and meat substitutes, and fats, assigning specific portion sizes to each food group while allowing for the substitution of foods within the same group without significantly affecting blood glucose levels. (Chapter 7.5)

Exocrine role: Refers to the release of digestive enzymes called amylase and lipase that help to digest food. (Chapter 7.2)

Exophthalmos: Bulging eyes. (Chapter 7.6)

Fasting blood glucose (FBG): Assesses an individual’s blood glucose level when they have had no caloric intake for at least eight hours (although water intake is permitted). (Chapter 7.5)

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Plays a role in sexual development and reproduction by affecting the function of the ovaries and testes. (Chapter 7.2)

Gastroparesis: Delayed stomach emptying, nausea, and vomiting. (Chapter 7.5)

Gestational diabetes: Elevated blood glucose occurs during pregnancy and typically resolves after the baby is born. (Chapter 7.5)

Glucagon: Hormone released in response to low blood glucose levels in order to raise blood glucose. (Chapter 7.2)

Gluconeogenesis: Stimulates the conversion of amino acids into glucose. (Chapter 7.2)

Glycogen: Glucose that is not immediately used by cells is stored in the liver and muscles. (Chapter 7.2)

Glycogenolysis: The conversion of glycogen stored in the liver into glucose and its release into the bloodstream. (Chapter 7.2)

Glycolysis: The first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. (Chapter 7.2)

Goiter: A swelling or nodularity of the thyroid and a sign of both hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism. (Chapter 7.6)

Graves’ disease: A typically long-lasting or permanent condition resulting from autoimmune destruction of the thyroid gland. (Chapter 7.6)

Growth hormone (GH): Promotes growth in children, helps maintain normal body structure in adults, and plays a role in metabolism in both children and adults. (Chapter 7.2)

Hashimoto’s thyroiditis: An autoimmune disease in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the thyroid gland, resulting in inflammation and damage. (Chapter 7.6)

Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C): Assesses an individual’s average blood glucose levels over the preceding two to three months. (Chapter 7.5)

Hirsutism: Excessive hair growth. (Chapter 7.7)

Homeostasis: The ability to maintain a stable state. (Chapter 7.2)

Hormone: A regulatory chemical substance produced by specialized cells or glands in the endocrine system that helps to regulate physiological processes. (Chapter 7.2)

Hyperglycemia: Occurs when a fasting blood glucose level is above 126 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) or a random blood glucose level exceeds 200 mg/dL. (Chapter 7.5)

Hyperhidrosis: Excessive sweating. (Chapter 7.7)

Hyperkalemia: Elevated potassium. (Chapter 7.7)

Hypernatremia: Elevated sodium. (Chapter 7.7)

Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS): A severe hyperglycemic emergency, primarily seen in individuals with type 2 diabetes; often in older adults. (Chapter 7.5)

Hyperparathyroidism: Overactivation of parathyroid glands causing excessive release of parathyroid hormone, resulting in hypercalcemia. (Chapter 7.8)

Hyperpigmentation: Darkening of the skin, especially in sun-exposed areas. (Chapter 7.7)

Hypoglycemia: An abnormally low blood glucose level typically below 70 mg/dL. (Chapter 7.5)

Hypokalemia: Decreased potassium. (Chapter 7.7)

Hyponatremia: Low sodium. (Chapter 7.7)

Hypothalamus: Area of the brain which serves as the body’s control center regulating temperature, heart rate, hunger, and mood. (Chapter 7.2)

Hypothalamus–pituitary complex: Coordinates the messages of the endocrine and nervous systems. (Chapter 7.2)

Hypothyroidism: A medical condition characterized by an underactive thyroid gland that causes reduced production of thyroid hormones. (Chapter 7.6)

Impaired fasting glucose: Identified in levels that range between 100 to 125 mg/dL. (Chapter 7.5)

Insulin: Facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells from the bloodstream, thus reducing blood glucose levels. (Chapter 7.2)

Insulin pumps: Small, programmable devices that deliver a continuous supply of insulin into the body, mimicking the function of a healthy pancreas. (Chapter 7.5)

Ketones: Metabolic byproducts of fatty acid metabolism, typically produced in the liver. (Chapter 7.5)

Latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA): A type of diabetes that starts in adulthood and slowly gets worse over time. (Chapter 7.5)

Lipogenesis: A process in which excess glucose is synthesized into triglycerides. (Chapter 7.2)

Lipolysis: A process in which stored triglycerides are broken down into free fatty acids and glycerol. (Chapter 7.2)

Luteinizing hormone (LH): Plays a role in sexual development in children and in women and triggers ovulation (the release of an egg from the ovary) during the menstrual cycle. (Chapter 7.2)

Melatonin: Hormone that affects reproductive development and daily circadian rhythms. (Chapter 7.2)

Metabolic syndrome: A group of conditions that increase the risk of coronary heart disease, diabetes, and stroke. (Chapter 7.5)

Myopathy: Muscle weakness. (Chapter 7.5)

Myxedema coma: A severe, life-threatening emergency that represents the extreme end of the spectrum of hypothyroidism. (Chapter 7.6)

Negative feedback loop: A regulatory mechanism that serves to maintain stability and homeostasis by counteracting changes in a physiological or environmental parameter. (Chapter 7.2)

Norepinephrine: A catecholamine produced by the adrenal medulla. (Chapter 7.7)

Oligomenorrhea: Infrequent or irregular menstrual periods. (Chapter 7.7)

Onycholysis: Separation of fingernails from the nail bed. (Chapter 7.6)

Oral glucose tolerance tests (GTT): Evaluates the body’s ability to regulate blood glucose levels, especially after consuming a high dose of glucose. (Chapter 7.5)

Osmoreceptors: Specialized sensory neurons or cells that are responsible for detecting changes in osmotic pressure within the body. (Chapter 7.2)

Oxytocin: Stimulates labor contractions and lactation after delivery. (Chapter 7.2)

Pancreas: A long, flat gland that lies behind the stomach, responsible for both exocrine and endocrine functions. (Chapter 7.2)

Parathyroid glands: Four small masses of tissue are embedded on the surface of the thyroid gland. (Chapter 7.2)

Parathyroid hormone (PTH): Maintains homeostasis between calcium and phosphorus via a negative feedback loop. (Chapter 7.2, Chapter 7.8)

Paresthesia: Symptoms including pain, tingling, and numbness. (Chapter 7.5)

Pineal gland: A small cone-shaped structure that extends posteriorly from a ventricle of the brain. (Chapter 7.2)

Pituitary gland: Gland located at the base of the brain which makes, stores, and releases hormones. (Chapter 7.2)

Polydipsia: Excessive thirst. (Chapter 7.5)

Polyphagia: Excessive hunger. (Chapter 7.5)

Polyuria: Excessive urination. (Chapter 7.5)

Posterior pituitary gland: Gland which secretes two hormones produced by the hypothalamus called oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). (Chapter 7.2)

Progesterone: Hormone that causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy. (Chapter 7.2)

Prolactin: Stimulates breast development and milk production in females. (Chapter 7.2)

Radioactive iodine (RAI) therapy: A common treatment for hyperthyroidism in conditions like Graves’ disease that utilizes radioactive iodine. (Chapter 7.6)

Radiofrequency ablation (RFA): A minimally invasive procedure that uses radiofrequency energy to heat and destroy thyroid nodules or hyperactive tissue. (Chapter 7.6)

Random blood glucose: Measures the level of glucose in the blood at any given time, without the requirement for fasting. (Chapter 7.5)

Somatostatin: Slows down the secretion of insulin and glucagon when needed to maintain blood glucose homeostasis. (Chapter 7.2)

Striae: Stretch marks. (Chapter 7.7)

Subtotal thyroidectomy: Surgical removal of a portion of the thyroid gland. (Chapter 7.6)

Sudomotor neuropathy: Absence of sweating in the extremities that causes dry skin and can lead to foot ulcerations. (Chapter 7.5)

Testosterone: Hormone that is responsible for the growth and development of the male reproductive structures, increased skeletal and muscular growth, enlargement of the larynx, and growth and distribution of body hair. (Chapter 7.2)

Tetany: Involuntary contraction or spasm of muscles. (Chapter 7.6, Chapter 7.8)

Thymus gland: Gland located in the mediastinum that is responsible for the production of T lymphocytes for the body’s immune response. (Chapter 7.2)

Thyroid gland: A butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the neck, just below the larynx. (Chapter 7.2)

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates thyroid hormone release by the thyroid gland. (Chapter 7.2, Chapter 7.6)

Thyroid storm: A severe state of hyperthyroidism that is a life-threatening medical condition. (Chapter 7.6)

Thyroxine (T4): A prohormone that is produced and secreted by the thyroid gland; serves as a precursor to triiodothyronine. (Chapter 7.6)

Total thyroidectomy: Surgical removal of the entire thyroid gland. (Chapter 7.6)

Triiodothyronine (T3): The active form of thyroid hormone, directly impacts the body’s metabolic rate by affecting the function of cells throughout the body. (Chapter 7.6)

Tropic hormones: Turn on or off the function of other endocrine glands. (Chapter 7.2)

Trousseau’s sign: A hand spasm caused by inflating a blood pressure cuff to a level above systolic pressure for three minutes. (Chapter 7.8)

Type 1 diabetes: The immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys beta cells, leading to an absolute deficiency of insulin. (Chapter 7.5)

Type 2 diabetes: The body either becomes resistant to the effects of insulin or does not produce sufficient insulin to meet the body’s needs. (Chapter 7.5)

Vitiligo: Loss of skin pigmentation. (Chapter 7.7)