7.1 Introduction

Early childhood education (ECE) teaching approaches and curriculum models provide a framework for teaching young children. They guide educators in intentionally designing indoor and outdoor environments by selecting appropriate activities, materials, and teaching methods to support children’s development and learning. By providing a structured approach, aligning with child development, and guiding teaching practices, curriculum models can help ensure that children receive a high-quality education that prepares them for future success.

In this chapter, we will review the Reggio Emilia, Montessori, and Waldorf teaching approaches. We will also explore two of the most common curricula in early childhood education, High Scope and Creative Curriculum. Many curriculum models are based on similar approaches, or the same fundamental beliefs, values, and principles that guide our teaching.

7.2 Curriculum in Early Childhood Education

Curriculum in early childhood education refers to the planned and spontaneous experiences, interactions, and environments that support children’s learning and development. It encompasses a wide range of teaching practices, materials, and strategies designed to foster cognitive, social, emotional, and physical growth.

Emergent curriculum in early childhood education is an approach where the curriculum evolves based on the interests, questions, and needs of the children, rather than being strictly preplanned or rigid. It is defined by its responsiveness to the children’s ideas and curiosities, with educators acting as facilitators of learning rather than directors. In this approach, curriculum is seen as everything the teacher does, from the way they engage with children to how they design and manage the learning environment. The environment itself is carefully crafted to invite exploration, creativity, and problem-solving, with materials and spaces that encourage independent and collaborative learning. Following the child’s lead is central to this philosophy, as it allows for learning to be deeply connected to the child’s interests and real-life experiences. Additionally, the culture of the classroom plays a significant role in emergent curriculum, as it fosters a community where relationships, respect, and cultural values shape how learning unfolds. This approach ensures that every aspect of the curriculum—whether planned or spontaneous—supports children’s holistic development and honors their agency as active learners.

Play-based Curriculum

Play is an integral aspect of childhood, offering numerous benefits for cognitive, social-emotional, language, and physical development. A play-based curriculum in early childhood education takes advantage of this natural disposition to put play and activity at the center of children’s learning.

Table 7a describes some of the key benefits of play-based curriculum.

A play-based curriculum is an essential approach in early childhood education that uses play as the primary method for fostering learning and development. Through guided and unstructured play experiences, children explore their interests, develop social skills, and engage in problem-solving while building cognitive, emotional, and physical competencies. Table 7b outlines elements of a play-based curriculum.

By prioritizing play-based learning, early childhood educators can create a stimulating and supportive environment that lays a strong foundation for children’s lifelong learning and development.

Nature-based Curriculum

A nature-based curriculum is an approach to early childhood education that emphasizes learning through regular and meaningful experiences in natural environments. Rooted in the belief that nature is a powerful teacher, this model supports the development of the whole child by encouraging exploration, curiosity, risk-taking, and connection with the natural world.

Nature-based education integrates the natural environment as both the setting and source of curriculum. Rather than separating “outdoor time” from academic learning, this approach treats nature as a living classroom where children engage in play and discovery. Learning is often emergent—driven by children’s questions and interests—and deeply rooted in hands-on, sensory experiences.

This curriculum supports a constructivist philosophy, where children build knowledge through active exploration. It also aligns with the principles of developmentally appropriate practice, emphasizing experiential, child-led learning that reflects children’s developmental stages and interests.

There are five core elements of the nature-based approach:

• Outdoor Learning Environments: Natural spaces such as forests, meadows, gardens, or even schoolyards are central. These areas provide open-ended materials (sticks, rocks, leaves, mud) that support creativity, problem-solving, and physical development.
• Unstructured Play: Children are encouraged to climb, build, dig, observe, and play freely in natural spaces, promoting motor development, resilience, and collaboration.
• Inquiry and Observation: Nature offers countless opportunities for inquiry. Children might observe life cycles, weather patterns, or animal behavior—sparking scientific thinking and environmental awareness.
• Risk-Taking and Confidence: Nature-based settings allow for manageable risks (like balancing on logs or navigating uneven terrain), which help children develop confidence, self-regulation, and persistence.
• Connection to Place and Sustainability: Regular time in nature fosters a deep emotional bond with the environment, laying the foundation for environmental stewardship and a lifelong respect for the natural world.

7.3 Approaches to Curriculum

Curriculum approaches such as Montessori, Reggio Emilia, and Waldorf offer distinct yet complementary philosophies that have shaped early childhood education (ECE) worldwide. Each approach emphasizes the importance of nurturing the whole child—socially, emotionally, cognitively, and physically—through developmentally appropriate, child-centered learning experiences. The Montessori method, developed by Dr. Maria Montessori, is grounded in scientific observation and emphasizes independence, hands-on learning, and self-discipline. The Reggio Emilia approach, inspired by the educational philosophies of Loris Malaguzzi and rooted in post-World War II Italian communities, highlights collaboration, expressive arts, and the environment as the “third teacher.” Waldorf education, founded by Rudolf Steiner, is based on anthroposophy and emphasizes imagination, rhythm, and the integration of art, nature, and movement. These approaches, each rooted in the theories of child development you learned about in Chapter 2, provide educators with diverse frameworks for creating meaningful, engaging early learning environments.

Montessori

Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and educator. Montessori’s early work with children with cognitive disabilities led her to develop a child-centered approach to education that focused on respecting each child’s unique abilities and intrinsic desire to learn. In 1907 she opened an early childhood center, the Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House), a quality educational environment for children, who many had thought were unable to learn.

The Montessori approach emphasizes independence; freedom within limits; and the development of the whole child, including cognitive, social and emotional, and physical aspects. By creating a carefully prepared environment, Montessori teachers encourage children to explore, experiment, and learn at their own pace. This approach fosters a love of learning and a sense of independence.

Teachers, often referred to as guides, observe rather than instruct, introducing new activities as children demonstrate readiness. This approach values self-education and capitalizes on periods of intense interest, known as sensitive periods, when children are especially receptive to acquiring specific skills.

The curriculum is interdisciplinary and holistic, weaving together practical life skills, sensory refinement, language, mathematics, and cultural exploration. Rather than compartmentalizing subjects, Montessori learning encourages connections between them. For example, children might prepare a snack while developing fine motor skills and sequencing or explore geometric solids while building vocabulary and spatial awareness. Throughout, the materials are designed to move from concrete to abstract understanding, supporting cognitive development in a tangible, meaningful way.

Montessori classrooms often include mixed-age groups, typically spanning three years, which fosters peer learning and mentorship. Children progress at their own pace, selecting work that matches their interests and developmental stage. Assessment is ongoing and observational, with educators documenting growth and using this information to guide future learning opportunities rather than relying on tests or grades.

Ultimately, the Montessori approach to curriculum supports the whole child—socially, emotionally, physically, and intellectually—by creating a learning environment that honors choice, encourages curiosity, and nurtures independence.

“The children are now working as if I did not exist.” Maria Montessori

Reggio Emilia Approach

The Reggio Emilia approach is a child-centered educational philosophy and pedagogy that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy, after World War II. The war had devastated the region, and people were eager to rebuild their lives and create a better future for their children. They believed that education, particularly early childhood education, could play a crucial role in shaping a more just and equitable society.

Theorist Loris Malaguzzi, along with parents, teachers, and community members, worked together to create schools that were responsive to the needs and interests of children. The approach is rooted in the belief that all children are capable and curious learners and emphasizes the importance of creating a stimulating and supportive environment where children can explore, experiment, and discover.

In Reggio-inspired classrooms, curriculum is not fixed but evolves in response to the children’s questions, ideas, and investigations. Teachers act as co-learners and collaborators, listening closely to children and using their observations to shape experiences that deepen understanding. Projects often begin with a simple question or event and unfold over days, weeks, or even months, allowing children to explore topics in depth through many forms of expression.

The environment is considered the “third teacher,” designed to invite exploration and interaction. Natural light, open-ended materials, and displays of children’s work reflect the belief that the space should support communication, creativity, and connection. Learning is made visible through careful documentation—teachers photograph; transcribe conversations; and display children’s thinking processes to reflect, revisit, and plan next steps.

The “Hundred Languages of Children” concept is central to the Reggio Emilia approach and suggests that children have a multitude of ways to express themselves, learn, and understand the world around them. These “languages” go beyond just verbal communication and include the following:

• Artistic Expression: Drawing, painting, sculpting, and other creative arts, placing a strong emphasis on the arts as a powerful tool for learning.
• Music and Movement: Singing, dancing, and playing musical instruments.
• Dramatic Play: Acting out roles and stories.
• Construction and Building: Creating with blocks, Legos, and other materials.
• Writing and Drawing: Expressing thoughts and ideas through written language and visual representations.
• Nature Exploration: Observing and interacting with the natural world.
• Digital Technologies: Using computers and other digital tools

Overall, the Reggio Emilia approach fosters a dynamic and responsive curriculum that respects the intelligence and creativity of young children, positioning them as active participants in their own learning journey.

Waldorf

The Waldorf approach is inspired by the work of Rudolf Steiner, a philosopher and scientist. His philosophy proposes that children are active agents of their own learning and that they are intrinsically motivated to learn through their own curiosity. Waldorf education is grounded in the belief that education should nurture the whole child—body, mind, and spirit—through a developmental, artistic, and rhythmically structured curriculum. In early childhood settings, the focus is on fostering imagination, sensory experience, and a sense of wonder, rather than on early academics or formal instruction.

Waldorf early childhood classrooms are intentionally home-like and warm, designed to offer consistency, beauty, and simplicity. The daily rhythm follows predictable patterns filled with purposeful work, creative play, storytelling, music, and outdoor exploration. Storytelling in the Waldorf approach is a central, daily practice that nurtures language development, imagination, and emotional connection. These routines provide a strong sense of security and support young children’s need for repetition and imitation. Teachers model tasks such as baking, handcrafts, or gardening, which children are invited to join through observation and imitation rather than direct instruction.

Rather than using structured lessons or academic benchmarks, the Waldorf curriculum immerses children in rich oral language experiences, practical activities, and imaginative play. Fairy tales, seasonal songs, puppet stories, and verse are central tools for developing language and moral understanding. Teachers tell rich, oral stories—often drawn from fairy tales, nature, and cultural traditions—without books or visual aids, allowing children to form their own vivid mental images and engage deeply with the narrative. Outdoor play and exploration are essential components of the curriculum, offering children the opportunity to connect with nature and develop physical coordination, sensory awareness, and a sense of responsibility. Regular time spent outdoors fosters creativity, problem-solving, and an appreciation for the natural world, all while supporting healthy physical development. Artistic expression—through movement, watercolor painting, beeswax modeling, and song—is woven throughout the day, nurturing creativity and fine motor development.

The Waldorf philosophy emphasizes delayed academic instruction, believing that cognitive learning unfolds most effectively after a solid foundation of physical, social, and emotional development. Reading, writing, and math are introduced gradually and organically in the grades, not during the early childhood years. Instead, the emphasis remains on experiential learning, storytelling, rhythm, and meaningful engagement with the natural world.

Teachers in Waldorf settings often stay with the same group of children for several years, building strong, stable relationships. Family involvement is also key, as the approach views the child’s development within the context of family, community, and nature. Spirituality, though not religious doctrine, is subtly embedded through reverence for life, celebration of seasonal festivals, and a focus on inner development.

Ultimately, a Waldorf teacher’s goal is to cultivate well-rounded individuals who are intellectually, emotionally, and spiritually balanced. By combining traditional academic subjects with artistic and practical skills, Waldorf teachers strive to create a holistic and enriching learning experience for their students.

Table 7c below offers a side-by-side comparison of these three approaches, highlighting their core features, classroom environments, roles of the educator, and views on learning and development. This overview provides a foundation for understanding how diverse philosophies can guide early childhood curriculum and influence educational practice.

7.4 Curriculum Models

Many early childhood programs use purchased curricula to provide structure and guidance for educators while still allowing flexibility to meet individual needs. These curricula—such as High Scope and The Creative Curriculum—are grounded in developmental theory and offer detailed frameworks, goals, and resources to support high-quality teaching and learning. While each curriculum offers a unique perspective, they all aim to support the whole child through developmentally appropriate, play-based experiences that foster curiosity, creativity, and a love of learning. By understanding different play-based curriculum models, educators can create enriching environments that align with children’s developmental needs and interests. This section will explore various models, highlighting their unique principles and contributions to early childhood education.

HighScope

The HighScope curriculum was developed in 1970, based on the methods of The Perry Preschool Project. This project was a study by American psychologist David Weikart from 1962-1967 to track how the intervention of high-quality early childhood education could positively impact the school readiness of high-risk, low-income, African American children in Michigan. Theoretical influences include Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and John Dewey.

The HighScope curriculum is a child-centered approach to early education that emphasizes hands-on learning and exploration. It is based on the belief that all children are capable and competent learners who are curious and motivated to understand the world around them. It places a strong emphasis on social-emotional development, recognizing the importance of relationships, cooperation, and empathy. HighScope integrates different subject areas, such as language arts, math, science, and social studies, so that children see the connections between different concepts and develop a holistic understanding of the world.

Each day, children participate in the plan-do-review cycle. They plan their activities, carry out their plans, and reflect on their experiences. This cycle encourages children to take ownership of their learning and develop problem-solving skills.

Five Key Ingredients of HighScope Curriculum

• Open-Ended Materials: A child’s home, culture, and language are reflected in a variety of developmentally appropriate, open-ended materials for them to explore.
• Manipulation: Children make discoveries when they are encouraged to handle, examine, combine, and transform materials and ideas.
• Choice: Children choose materials and play partners, change and build on their play ideas, and plan activities according to their interests and needs.
• Child Language and Thought: Children communicate verbally and nonverbally, expressing ideas, negotiating roles, and making sense of their experiences through play.
• Adult Scaffolding: Educators support and extend children’s learning by observing closely, asking open-ended questions, offering just enough assistance to challenge thinking, and building on the child’s ideas without taking over the experience.

The HighScope classroom is designed to be an engaging environment that promotes active, experiential learning, and child-initiated exploration. The classroom is divided into various learning centers, each equipped with a wide range of materials and resources. These centers might include the following:

• Block area for building and constructing
• Art area for creative expression
• Dramatic play area for role-playing and imaginative play
• Sensory table for exploring textures and materials
• Literacy center for reading, writing, and storytelling
• Math and science center for problem-solving and discovery
• Computer center for technology-based learning
• Outdoor play area for physical activity and nature exploration

The classroom provides a variety of open-ended materials that can be used in multiple ways, encouraging creativity and divergent thinking. Materials are organized in a way that is easy for children to access and use independently. Storage solutions are child-sized and clearly labeled.

In a HighScope classroom, teachers play a key role in creating a child-centered learning environment. They closely observe and listen to children to understand their interests, strengths, and needs, using this information to plan meaningful, developmentally appropriate activities. Teachers support learning by asking open-ended questions, offering guidance when needed, and encouraging independent problem-solving. They organize engaging learning centers and materials that promote exploration and critical thinking. Through ongoing documentation—such as notes and photos—teachers track progress and plan individual and group experiences. By taking on these roles, HighScope educators empower children to become confident, active learners and problem-solvers.

Creative Curriculum

The Creative Curriculum is a widely used, comprehensive, research-based early childhood curriculum developed by Teaching Strategies. Designed for infants through preschool-age children, it emphasizes developmentally appropriate practice and promotes learning through play, exploration, and hands-on experiences. The curriculum is grounded in the belief that children learn best when they are actively involved in their learning and when their teachers are intentional in planning meaningful, individualized experiences.

The Creative Curriculum supports deep, meaningful learning through a project-based approach. Project-based learning is a structured form of inquiry, the process of exploring, questioning, and investigating to make meaning and build understanding, in which children explore a topic in depth over time, often through a combination of direct experience, discussion, art, reading, and hands-on investigation. Projects are typically guided by a question or problem and involve sustained engagement. Within The Creative Curriculum, project-based learning often takes the form of “studies.” These are intentional, extended investigations of familiar, real-world topics—such as buildings, trees, pets, or wheels—that unfold over several weeks. For example, children might measure building blocks during a “Building Study,” write stories about their pets during a “Pets Study,” or draw maps in a “Neighborhood Study.”

In The Creative Curriculum classroom, teachers create opportunities for inquiry by doing the following:

• Encouraging children to ask questions during daily routines or play.
• Providing open-ended materials and provocations that invite exploration.
• Listening to children’s ideas and using them to guide planning.
• Asking open-ended questions like, “What do you think will happen if…?” or “Why do you think that works?”

This approach builds critical thinking, language development, and problem-solving skills as children investigate topics that are meaningful to them.

The classroom environment in The Creative Curriculum model is considered the “third teacher.” Learning spaces are organized into interest areas—such as blocks, dramatic play, art, library, science, and discovery—each thoughtfully designed to invite exploration and reflect children’s interests and cultural backgrounds. Materials are developmentally appropriate, open-ended, and rotated based on emerging interests and the projects or studies. A predictable yet flexible daily schedule provides a balance of child-initiated and teacher-guided activities, indoor and outdoor play, and opportunities for individual and group interactions.

Teachers play a critical role as observers, planners, facilitators, and assessors. In The Creative Curriculum classroom, teachers observe children’s play and interactions to gather information about their development, interests, and needs. These observations guide lesson planning, ensuring activities are relevant and engaging. Teachers extend learning through intentional interactions—asking open-ended questions, modeling skills, and scaffolding problem-solving. They also build strong relationships with families to support each child’s learning and incorporate the home culture into the classroom community.

Learning Activities

7.4 Conclusion

In conclusion, early childhood curriculum models serve as essential guides for shaping developmentally appropriate practices that support the growth of the whole child. By studying a range of models—such as Montessori, Reggio Emilia, HighScope, and play-based approaches—educators gain a deeper understanding of the values, theories, and strategies that inform high-quality early learning environments. This knowledge helps early childhood educators make informed, reflective decisions about how to design learning experiences, interact with children, and respond to developmental needs. It also helps educator’s form their personal philosophy for teaching with evidence-based practices while honoring the unique cultural, familial, and community contexts of the children they serve. Ultimately, a solid grasp of curriculum models strengthens educators’ ability to be intentional, responsive, and inclusive—creating classrooms where all children can thrive, explore, and reach their full potential.

7.5 References

Albro, C., & Ebert, S. (2014). Plan-do-review in kindergarten: How one Utah school system makes it work [PDF]. High/Scope Press. https://highscope.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/HSwinter2014-15_72_Plan-Do-Review.pdf

Beneke, S., Ostrosky, M., & Katz, L. G. (2019). The project approach for all learners: A hands-on guide for inclusive early childhood classrooms. Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.

Childs, G. (1998). Steiner education in theory and practice. Floris Books.

Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. (2024). Early childhood: Developmentally appropriate practices (DAP). https://dpi.wi.gov/early-childhood/devel-approp

Early Childhood Today Editorial Staff. (2001). Pioneers in our field: Lucy Sprague-Mitchell—Teaching the whole child. Early Childhood Today. https://web.archive.org/web/20210404225606/https://www.scholastic.com/teachers/articles/teaching-content/pioneers-our-field-lucy-sprague-mitchell-teaching-whole-child/

Edwards, C. P., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. E. (Eds.). (1998). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia Approach–Advanced reflections (2nd ed.). Ablex Pub. Corp.

Epstein, A. S., & Hohmann, M. (2012). The HighScope preschool curriculum. High/Scope Press.

Fisher, K., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., Singer, D. G., & Berk, L. (2012). Playing around in school: Implications for learning and educational policy. Oxford Handbooks Online, 342-360. https://www.academia.edu/19508688/Playing_Around_in_School_Implications_for_Learning_and_Educational_Policy

Handford, E., & Winter, C. (Ed). (2009). American radioworks: Early lessons [PDF]. American Public Media. https://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/preschool/American_RadioWorks_-_Early_Lessons_-_ebook.pdf

Howard, S. (2007). The essentials of Waldorf early childhood education [PDF]. Waldorf Early Childhood Association of North America. http://waldorfearlychildhood.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Essentials-of-Waldorf-Early-Childhood-Education.pdf

Koetzsch, R. E., & Riegal, A. (2018). Letting children be children [PDF]. Waldorf Early Childhood Association of North America. waldorfearlychildhood.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Letting-Children-Be-Children.pdf.

Montessori, M. (1964). The absorbent mind. Theosophical Press. https://www.daneshnamehicsa.ir/userfiles/files/1/18-%20Maria%20Montessori%20-%20The%20Absorbent%20Mind.pdf

Mooney, C. G. (2002). Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erickson, Piaget & Vygotsky. Redleaf Press.

Nell, M. L., Drew, W. F., & Bush, D. E. (2011). From play to practice: Connecting teachers’ play to children’s learning. Redleaf Press.

Bank Street College of Education. (n.d.). Our approach. https://www.bankstreet.edu/about-bank-street/our-approach/

Park, S., & Lit, I. (2015). Learning to play, playing to learn: The Bank Street developmental interaction approach in Liliana’s kindergarten classroom. https://educate.bankstreet.edu/books/15

Schweinhart, L. J. (2005). The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study through age 40: Summary, conclusions, and frequently asked questions [PDF]. High/Scope Press. https://highscope.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/perry-preschool-summary-40.pdf 

Wien, C. A., & Williams, L. R. (Eds.). (2008). Emergent curriculum in the primary classroom: Interpreting the Reggio Emilia approach in schools (Ser. Early Childhood Education Series). Teachers College Press .

Vaughan, C., & Brown, S. (2009). Play: How it shapes the brain, opens the imagination, and invigorates the soul. Avery.

Images:

Figure 7a: Google AI. Gemini. (2025). Flash 2.0. [Artificial intelligence system]. https://gemini.google.com/

Figure 7b: “4121373286_399f964496_k” by woodleywonderwork is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Videos:

WisconsinDPI. (2017, April 18). Play is the way [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sbHwOzAO8to

Bank Street School for Children. (2022, January 20). School for children history: Bank Street Centennial [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AkzCKvJ9tlQ

rodrigrap. (2013, July 15). Getting to know HighScope’s preschool curriculum [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7YaobYTPgk

Department for Education, South Australia. (2019, October 18). What’s pedagogy anyway? Introduction to Reggio Emilia [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=shdMJMwyAj8

Reggio Children. (n.d.). Il superpotere dei “Cento linguaggi”/The Superpower of the “Hundred Languages” | Estratto [Video]. Vimeo. All rights reserved. https://vimeo.com/481355719

Rudolf Steiner School, NYC. (n.d.) Early Childhood Program – A healthy and nurturing foundation [Video]. Vimeo. All rights reserved. https://vimeo.com/424655462