Chapter 8: The Power of Play: Enhancing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Education
Sarah Horstman
Course Competency: Examine the critical role of play as it relates to developmentally appropriate practice
Learning Objectives:
- Describe the importance of play
- Identify the types and stages of play
- Identify the teacher’s/caregiver’s role in preparing the environment and facilitating play
- Describe how hands-on, play-based experiences promote child development/learning in all domains
- Identify the teacher’s/caregiver’s role in using observational skills to support play and learning
8.1 Introduction
Play is the foundation of early childhood development, serving as both a natural and essential way for children to explore, learn, and grow. Through play, children develop critical cognitive, social, emotional, and physical skills that shape their overall well-being. This chapter will explore the importance of play in early childhood education and examine the various types and stages of play that support developmentally appropriate practice. Additionally, it will highlight the essential role of teachers and caregivers in creating environments that foster meaningful play experiences, using observation to guide and support learning. By understanding how hands-on, play-based experiences promote growth across all developmental domains, educators can ensure that play remains at the heart of early learning.
8.2 Importance of Play
Children are born observers. Today’s children are active participants in their own learning, not just recipients of a teacher’s knowledge. Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), as outlined by NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children), challenges early childhood professionals to be intentional in their interactions and environments to create optimal experiences to maximize children’s growth and development. Under the umbrella of DAP, knowledge is based on discovery, and discovery occurs through active learning and abundant opportunities for exploration!
Play is important. The following are key reasons why play should be incorporated into the curriculum and classroom:
- Inspires imagination
- Facilitates creativity
- Fosters problem-solving
- Promotes development of new skills
- Builds confidence and high levels of self-esteem
- Allows free exploration of the environment
- Fosters learning through hands-on and sensory exploration
It is now understood that moments often discounted as “just play” are actually moments in which children are actively learning (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2009; Jones & Reynolds, 2011; Zigler, Signer, & Bishop-Josef, 2004; Elkind 2007). (1) While engaged in play, children explore the physical properties of materials and the possibilities for action, transformation, or representation. Children try out a variety of ways to explore with objects and materials and, in so doing, experiment with and build concepts and ideas. This active engagement with the world of people and objects starts from the moment of birth.
Reflect
- What do you remember about playing as a child?
- What was your favorite place to play? People to play with? Items to play with?
8.3 Piaget’s Stages of Play and How Children Play
Educators observe stages of play, described in Table 8a below, through experiences children navigate in their program. Educators use these observations of children to plan for environments, set individual goals and objectives, and create appropriate curricular experiences.
| Stage | Description |
|---|---|
| Functional Play | Exploring, inspecting, and learning through repetitive physical activity (2) |
| Symbolic Play | The ability to use objects, actions, or ideas to represent other objects, actions, or ideas and may include taking on roles (3) |
| Constructive Play | Involves experimenting with objects to build things; learning things that were previously unknown with hands-on manipulation of materials (4) |
| Games With Rules | Imposes rules that must be followed by everyone who is playing; the logic and order involved form the foundations for developing game playing strategies (5) |
In the world of early childhood education, there are not only observable stages of play but also types of play done by children 0-8 years old. Mildred Parten (1932) observed two- to five-year old children and noted six types of play Three types she labeled as non-social (unoccupied, solitary, and onlooker), and three types were categorized as social play (parallel, associative, and cooperative). Table 6b below describes each play type. Young children tend to engage in the non-social play more than the older children; by age five, associative and cooperative play are the most common forms of play (Dyer & Moneta, 2006). (6)
| Category | Description |
|---|---|
| Unoccupied Play | Children’s behavior seems more random and without a specific goal. This is the least common form of play. |
| Solitary Play | Children play by themselves, do not interact with others, and do not engage in similar activities as the children around them. |
| Onlooker Play | Children are observing other children playing. They may comment on the activities and even make suggestions but will not directly join in the play. |
| Parallel Play | Children play alongside each other, using similar toys, but do not directly interact with each other. |
| Associative Play | Children will interact with each other and share toys but not work together towards a common goal. |
| Cooperative Play | Children are interacting to achieve a common goal. Children may take on different tasks to reach that goal. |
Please note that very much like the Wisconsin Model Early Learning Standards (WMELS), the types of play are not age marked. The way children play is dependent on them as an individual, their culture, and the age at which a child is at. This is why it is important to observe and meet the child where they are at in their exploration of play.
Reflect
- Which stages of play have you observed with children?
- What events or interactions helped you categorize this stage?
8.4 Facilitating Play
As a facilitator, your role is to set the stage (the environment) and then provide both time and opportunities for the children to explore and play! According to Lisa Murphy, AKA the Ooey Gooey Lady, children and adults have two different definitions of play. Play to an adult has a tangible outcome at the end such as finishing a book or sewing a dress, but to children there is no observable goal or outcome. (8) Being a facilitator of play means that you are ready and willing to assist when called upon. This should not be confused with not doing anything why the children play, during free play. Instead, this means having developmentally appropriate materials readily available for the children to explore their environment. It also means accepting that children will get messy, some of your materials won’t clean up as perfectly as it did right out of the box, and they might be played with in a different way than intended. Children’s play thrives when adults step back and relinquish some control. Allowing children more autonomy is key to facilitating authentic play experiences. To foster genuine play, adults need to be willing to let children take the lead.
When teachers regularly observe and document brief, subtle moments of children’s learning through play, those records can help parents and others understand how useful and important play is in helping children to learn and grow. For example, a teacher might report the following as a child’s language and social development to the parent of a three-year-old: “I watched Sarah standing outside the playhouse area today. Instead of just watching the other children or wandering through their play without getting involved as she often does, she brought the children a book to read to the ‘baby’ in the family. They asked her if she wanted to be the big sister, and she said “Yes’ and joined right in. I have been thinking about ways to help her learn how to use her language to get involved in play with other children, but she figured out her own, creative way to join them.”
In early childhood settings, the structure and leadership of play experiences vary widely—from open-ended child-led exploration to more structured, adult-led activities. Each type of play in Table 6c offers unique opportunities for learning, and understanding the differences can help educators make intentional choices that balance guidance with independence.
| Type of Play | Definition | Example | Purpose |
| Free Play | Unstructured, spontaneous play initiated and controlled by the child without specific goals set by an adult. | A child chooses to build a tower with blocks during open center time, with no adult prompting or direction. | Supports creativity, independence, decision-making, and social interaction. |
| Child-Directed Play | Play that is led by the child’s interests and choices but may take place in an environment thoughtfully prepared by an adult. | A teacher sets up a dramatic play center with dress-up clothes and props, and children choose roles and scenarios on their own. | Encourages initiative, problem-solving, and leadership while still offering developmental supports through the materials provided. |
| Adult-Guided Play | Play in which adults participate as partners or facilitators, gently guiding the direction without taking control. | During a sensory bin activity, the teacher engages with children by asking open-ended questions like, “What does that feel like?” or “Can you find something that makes a sound?” | Expands language, supports deeper thinking, and extends learning while honoring children’s lead. |
| Adult-Directed Play | Structured activities planned and led by adults, often with a specific learning goal in mind. | A teacher leads a small group in a sorting game where children categorize objects by color or shape. | Introduces new concepts, reinforces skills, and allows observation of developmental progress. |
High-quality programs include a balance of these types of play throughout the day. Free and child-directed play promote independence and creativity, while adult-guided and directed activities can scaffold learning and introduce new skills. Games help children practice social rules and regulation in a fun, engaging way.
By intentionally planning for a range of play experiences, educators can meet developmental goals while honoring the natural ways children learn best—through joyful, active exploration.
8.5 The Role of Play in Children’s Learning and Development
Imagine four young children—eager and engaged in play amidst an assortment of wooden blocks. They may appear to be “just playing”; however, upon closer inspection, this moment of play reveals a web of ideas, theories, and hypotheses under construction, as well as an energetic debate. We may observe that the children are negotiating how to connect the blocks to make roads that will surround their carefully balanced block structure. The structure has walls of equal height, which support a flat roof, from which rise ten towers, built using cardboard tubes. Resting on each tube is a shiny, recycled jar lid, each one a different color. Two children are figuring out between themselves when to add or take away blocks in order to make a row of towers that increase in height. As we listen and watch, we witness the children building a foundation for addition and subtraction. To make each wall just high enough to support a flat roof, they count aloud the number of blocks they are using to make each wall, showing an emerging understanding of the math concept of cardinal numbers. When they hear the signal that lunch is about to be served, one child finds a clipboard with pen and paper attached, draws a rudimentary outline of the block structure on the paper, and then asks the teacher to write, “Do not mess up. We are still working on our towers.”
In this example, children show evidence of emerging concepts of social studies through their construction of a small community from blocks; of physical science and mathematics as they experiment with how to make objects balance; and of reading, writing, and drawing as they request the teacher’s help with making a sign to protect their work. They work together to create their play and cooperate in carrying out agreed upon plans. Each is fully engaged and manages their behavior to cooperate in a complex social situation. The concepts under construction in the minds of these children and the skills they are learning and practicing closely match several desired learning outcomes for children at this age. Anticipating the variety of concepts and skills that would emerge during the play, the teachers stocked the blocks/construction area with collections of blocks, props, and writing materials to support a full range of possibilities.
Because imaginary play holds such rich potential for promoting children’s cognitive, linguistic, social, and physical development, high-quality preschool programs recognize play as a key element of the curriculum. Children’s spontaneous play is a window into their ideas and feelings about the world. As such, it is a rich source of ideas for curriculum planning (Lockett, 2004). (7) For example, if a teacher observes a group of children repeatedly engaging in imaginary play about illness or hospitalization, they might decide to convert the playhouse area into a veterinary clinic for a week or two. The teacher might also read children stories involving doctors, hospitals, getting sick, and getting well. The teacher’s observations of children’s resulting conversations and activities would suggest ways to deepen or extend the curriculum further. In thinking of ways to extend the curriculum, it will be important that teachers ensure that the materials used and themes built upon are culturally familiar to the children and value children’s cultural heritage.
8.6 The Teaching Cycle
In early childhood education, the teaching cycle is a continuous, dynamic process that guides intentional and responsive teaching. At the heart of this cycle is assessment, which serves as the foundation for effective planning. By observing and assessing children’s development, interests, and learning styles, educators gather valuable insights that inform the next steps in instruction. These observations allow teachers to design meaningful, developmentally appropriate experiences that meet each child where they are. Rather than following a rigid curriculum, the teaching cycle empowers educators to adapt and respond—using assessment not just to monitor progress, but to plan experiences that foster deeper engagement, support individual needs, and promote holistic growth. Through this cycle of assess, plan, implement, and reflect, educators create an environment where every child can thrive.
Assessment in early childhood education is a systematic process of gathering, interpreting, and using information about children’s learning and development to make informed decisions that support their growth. Observation serves as a primary method for collecting meaningful data about children’s behaviors, skills, and interactions in natural contexts. Assessment serves multiple purposes. First, it helps educators monitor children’s progress toward developmental goals. Second, it helps identify individual learning needs, plan appropriate interventions, evaluate the effectiveness of teaching strategies and curriculum, and communicate progress to families and other professionals. Finally, it also informs decisions about transitions and future learning experiences.
The interconnection between observation and assessment is essential—systematic observation provides the raw data that helps educators identify what children know and can do, how they learn, and how they are progressing developmentally. This intentional approach allows educators to plan responsive and individualized learning experiences rooted in real understanding.
Observation in early childhood education is the intentional and systematic practice of watching, listening, and documenting children’s behaviors, interactions, and learning processes in their natural settings. It involves being fully present and attentive as children engage in play and interact with peers and their environment—without directing or participating in their activities. This kind of mindful presence, whether for a brief moment or a longer period, allows educators to truly see what unfolds in children’s play and learning. Through careful observation, educators can better understand each child’s unique strengths, interests, and learning styles. It also provides valuable insight into developmental milestones, social-emotional growth, communication skills, and problem-solving abilities. These observations serve as a foundation for responsive curriculum planning, help identify areas where additional support may be needed, and foster meaningful relationships by showing genuine interest in the child’s experiences. Additionally, documentation from observations supports communication with families, offering a window into their child’s progress and daily life in the classroom.
There are various observation and assessment methods described in Table 8d.
| Assessment Method | Description |
| Anecdotal Records | Brief notes describing specific incidents or behaviors. |
| Running Records | Detailed, sequential accounts of everything a child says and does during a specific time. |
| Time Sampling | Observing and recording specific behaviors at predetermined intervals. |
| Event Sampling | Observing and recording every instance of a specific behavior. |
| Checklists and Rating Scales | Using predetermined lists of skills or behaviors to mark presence or frequency. |
| Learning Stories | Narrative observations that focus on a child’s learning process, highlighting their strengths and dispositions. |
| Photographs and Videos | Capturing visual evidence of children’s learning and development. |
| Work Samples | Collecting children’s drawings, writings, and creations to analyze their progress. |
Early childhood teachers see and support children as researchers, investigators, and experts and, thus, design the play environment to serve the children’s inquisitive minds. Teachers also provide the materials children need to construct concepts and ideas and master skills in the natural context of play. Children learn from opportunities to discover materials that they may be seeing for the first time and need time to explore and get to know the properties of these materials. It means offering children materials that they can organize into relationships of size, shape, number, function, and time. Children can investigate what happens when they put these materials together or arrange them in new ways, experiencing the delight of discovering possibilities for building with them, transforming them, or using them to represent an experience.
8.7 Hands-on Learning Developing in All Areas
Hands-on learning uniquely allows children to gain knowledge of the topic or idea they are learning through experience, it is also really fun. (9)
Dr. Jody Sherman LeVos states that there are seven benefits to hands-on learning for children of all ages (9):
- Encourages interaction to improve skills: Learning by doing is a great way to help children practice the skills that they have just learned. The key to hands-on learning is the engagement aspect with the content.
- Makes abstract concepts concrete: When a child commits something to memory, such as counting numbers, it doesn’t necessarily mean that they understand what they are doing or the concept. However, when they physically hold objects they are counting, they begin to understand. By using hands-on learning, children are able to connect what they are learning in the world around them.
- Strengthens fine motor skills: Experiential learning (hands-on learning) encourages children to work on their fine motor skills, also known as the small muscles in your hands and fingers that help perform precise movements. These are movements and skills that will be used into adulthood
- Allows for creativity: Hands-on learning creates opportunities for children to use all different types of creativity, not just in arts or music but also in their critical thinking skills when finishing a hands-on learning science experiment.
- Promotes problem-solving skills: When children can figure things out on their own and think critically, they are allowing for different perspectives and different approaches to come up with solutions. Children face challenges when engaging in hands-on activities and can use trial and error to come up with solutions.
- Builds social skills: Hands-on experiences often involve group work or collaboration. Children practice communication skills, compromise, and conflict resolution when working hands-on as a group.
- Sparks curiosity: When working hands-on with materials, children are often inspired to explore and ask questions. Children start to engage with the world around them and become active participants in their learning.
Learning Activities
8.8 Conclusion
In conclusion, play is not merely a pastime for young children but rather a critical cornerstone of developmentally appropriate practice. It serves as the primary vehicle through which children explore their world; develop essential cognitive, social-emotional, physical, and language skills; and build a foundation for future learning. By recognizing and actively fostering child-led, engaging, and meaningful play experiences, educators align with developmentally appropriate principles, creating environments where children thrive, learn authentically, and reach their full potential. Embracing play as a fundamental element of early childhood education is, therefore, paramount to nurturing well-rounded, curious, and capable young learners.
8.9 References
Ground for Play. (2025). Cognitive and social types of play. Ground for Play. https://groundsforplay.com/blog/cognitive-and-social-types-of-play
California Department of Education. (2016). Best practices for planning curriculum for young children [PDF]. https://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/documents/intnatureoflearning2016.pdf
Learneo, Inc. (n.d.). Lifespan Development Module 5: Early Childhood – Introduction to Early Childhood. Course Hero. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/lifespandevelopment2/chapter/module/
LeVos, J. S. (2024). 7 key benefits of hands-on learning (+5 engaging ideas). Begin Learning. https://www.beginlearning.com/parent-resources/hands-on-learning/#:~:text=Hands%2Don%20learning%20uniquely%20allows,something%20or%20solve%20a%20problem
Murphy, L. (2016). Lisa Murphy on play: The foundation of children’s learning. Redleaf Press.
Picture Perfect Playgrounds, Inc. (2025). Constructive play. Play and Playground Encyclopedia. https://www.pgpedia.com/c/constructive-play
Picture Perfect Playgrounds, Inc. (2025). Games and rules. Play and Playground Encyclopedia. https://www.pgpedia.com/g/games-rules
Picture Perfect Playgrounds, Inc. (2025). Symbolic play. Play and Playground encyclopedia. https://www.pgpedia.com/s/symbolic-play
Images:
Figure 8a: Aitubo. (2025). Flux (v1.0). [Artificial intelligence system]. https://aitubo.ai/
Figure 8d: “the teaching cycle” by Nic Ashman, Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0
