2.1 Introduction

Have you ever wondered why, despite the vast diversities in culture and geography, the concept of family is universal? Family is a fundamental aspect of human society, shaping identities, values, and experiences from birth through adulthood. It encompasses both biological and social relationships, including those formed through blood, marriage, adoption, and shared commitments.

This chapter explores the complexities of family life, including how cultural values, traditions, and parenting practices influence a child’s development. We will examine the impact of implicit and explicit bias, stereotypes, and microaggressions on family perceptions and caregiving practices. Additionally, we will analyze how educators’ own family experiences shape their attitudes toward diverse families and influence their teaching approaches.

Early childhood educators have a responsibility to understand family dynamics and their role in shaping children’s learning experiences. By integrating strategies that support diversity, equity, and inclusion, teachers can create inclusive environments that honor each family’s unique background. This includes collaborating with families in the development and implementation of classroom celebrations and activities that reflect their cultural traditions and values. For example, in Figure 2a below, you see a teacher engaging with families in a community park. Understanding and respecting family diversity strengthens relationships, enhances learning, and fosters a sense of belonging for all children.

2.2 The Influence of Culture

Families arrive at early childhood settings with unique family cultures that give meaning and direction to their lives. The cultural beliefs of families inform decisions made about the child and the family. Cultures shape our views on key issues such as family roles and goals, caregiving practices, learning, education, school readiness, child behaviors, and the nature of childhood itself. For many families in early childhood settings, their home languages play an important role in shaping the identities of their children. Cultural values and knowledge are passed down to children through languages, traditions, and beliefs through a process called acculturation (Naik et al., 2023).

Culture is all around us. It is central to learning and a child’s development. Culture is a multifaceted phenomenon and may be expressed differently across racial and ethnic backgrounds. Thus, culture is defined as the following:

• The way that particular groups of people live, think, communicate, and interact with others in society (Pappas & McKelvie, 2022).
• The set of shared behaviors, beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a group or society of people (Naik et al., 2023; Pappas & McKelvie, 2022; Yosso, 2005).
• The set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional features of society or a social group that encompasses not only art and literature but lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions, and belief (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2009, p. 1).
• Culture can encompass “one’s nationality, ethnicity, region, religion, and other socially defined groups” (Lansford, 2022).
• Culture can be expressed through “language, religion, art, lifestyle, literature, ways of living together, social norms, food, rituals, traditions, and institutions, and shapes an individual’s worldview (or how they think about the world) and identity” (Pappas & McKelvie, 2022; The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2009).

According to these definitions, as outlined in Table 2a, culture is reflected in both physical and nonphysical elements.

Beginning in infancy, children develop their cultural identity through close relationships with family members, which serve as the foundation for all other learning (ECLKC, 2024b). Culture shapes every part of a child’s early experiences, from the language they are exposed to and the traditions they engage in to the values and beliefs that influence their understanding of the world. Young children naturally use characteristics related to their ethnic background, family traditions, and home language to develop a sense of belonging with peers and adults.

Early childhood educators play a crucial role in fostering a positive cultural identity by creating environments that honor and reflect each child’s heritage. Responsive educators respect and incorporate family traditions, languages, and values into the learning environment, helping children see their culture as an important and valued part of their identity (Phinney, 1990; ECLKC, 2024b). Because cultural values shape caregiving practices, discipline strategies, and expectations for child development, understanding a family’s cultural perspective allows educators to form stronger, more meaningful partnerships with families (ECLKC, 2024b).

As children grow, their evolving cultural identity influences their self-esteem, academic performance, and social relationships (Phinney, 1990). When children feel that their culture is respected and celebrated, they develop a strong sense of self-worth and belonging. This foundation supports emotional resilience, social competence, and a lifelong appreciation for diversity. Educators who actively integrate culturally responsive practices help children not only embrace their own identity but also develop respect and curiosity for the identities of others. By recognizing and affirming each child’s cultural background, early childhood educators create inclusive learning environments that foster confidence, empathy, and long-term academic success.

2.3 Parenting Approaches

For more than 75 years, developmental psychologists have studied the ways that parents influence their child’s development (Kuppens & Cuelemens, 2019). Many theories emphasize that parenting plays a vital role in the social and emotional development of young children (Kuppens & Cuelemens, 2019). However, parenting approaches are just as diverse as definitions of family.

Each family has its own values, beliefs, and practices that shape the way they nurture and guide their children. While some parents may emphasize independence and self-reliance, others may prioritize community and interdependence. Some may adopt a highly structured approach to discipline, while others may use more flexible, child-led strategies. Regardless of the approach, every family possesses strengths that contribute to their child’s development.

As early childhood educators, it is essential to recognize and build upon these strengths rather than focusing solely on perceived deficits. Viewing families through a strength-based lens allows educators to foster trusting relationships and create inclusive environments where all families feel valued and supported. This perspective also acknowledges that every parenting approach has both strengths and areas for growth.

By understanding and respecting diverse parenting styles, educators can work collaboratively with families, offering resources and guidance when needed while also affirming the unique strengths they bring to their child’s life. This approach ensures that families feel empowered rather than judged, ultimately leading to stronger partnerships that support children’s learning and development.

Parenting Styles

A parenting style refers to the general approach or strategy that parents use to raise their children. It encompasses the attitudes, behaviors, and practices that parents display in their interactions with their children. Parenting styles typically affect a child’s emotional development, behavior, and social interactions. Table 2b below will describe the four most researched and common parenting styles and the effects they have on children. The list of the effects on the children is not all-encompassing and does not mean that each child will experience each effect.

Table 2b outlines the four main parenting styles commonly studied in Western cultures. These styles have been widely researched, but as our understanding of parenting evolves, these categories have become more refined. The traditional four styles—authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved—are now expanded into a broader range of styles, including the “Seven Common Parenting Styles” that reflect the diversity of parenting approaches observed today.

Parents may use a specific parenting style for a variety of reasons, influenced by factors such as their own upbringing, cultural beliefs, personality, and life circumstances. Here are some key factors that contribute to why parents adopt certain styles:

1. Upbringing and Past Experiences: Parents often model their parenting style based on how they were raised. If they experienced a particular style growing up, they might either replicate it or consciously choose a different approach depending on their own reflections about their childhood.
2. Cultural and Societal Influences: Different cultures have distinct expectations and norms regarding child-rearing. For example, in some cultures, strictness and respect for authority might be emphasized, leading to authoritarian parenting, while in others, nurturing and close relationships with children may be prioritized, which can lead to more permissive or authoritative styles.
3. Personality and Temperament: A parent’s own personality plays a significant role in how they interact with their child. Some parents may naturally lean toward being more controlling or structured, while others may be more laid-back and permissive. Parents with a calm, patient temperament might be drawn to an authoritative style, whereas more anxious or controlling parents might adopt an authoritarian approach.
4. Stress and Life Circumstances: A parent’s current life situation, such as financial stress, work demands, or relationship issues, can affect how much time and energy they are able to invest in their child’s upbringing. In high-stress environments, some parents may adopt more authoritarian or neglectful styles due to fatigue or emotional strain.
5. Child’s Needs and Behavior: The child’s temperament can influence how parents respond. For instance, parents may adopt a more structured or authoritarian style if their child has difficulty following rules or managing emotions, while they may be more permissive or authoritative with a child who is independent and cooperative.
6. Beliefs about Child Development: Parents’ beliefs about what children need to grow and develop effectively can guide their choices. For example, a parent who values independence may lean toward an authoritative style, while one who believes in strict discipline may adopt an authoritarian style.
7. External Influences and Support: Friends, family, and even media can influence how parents raise their children. Parents might follow popular parenting trends or take advice from people around them, which can shape their approach to parenting.

In short, parenting styles emerge from a complex interplay of personal, cultural, and contextual factors. While each style can have a different impact on a child’s development, many parents adjust their approach over time based on what they believe will work best for their child’s needs.

Early childhood educators play a crucial role in supporting families and recognizing the impact of different parenting approaches. By understanding the diverse ways parents guide their children, educators can do the following:

• Build stronger, more empathetic relationships with families.
• Offer tailored strategies that support positive child development.
• Recognize potential challenges children may face in the classroom.
• Encourage balanced, responsive, and developmentally appropriate practices for caregivers.

Parenting Across Cultures

Some psychologists who have studied ethnic groups across societies argue that the above referenced parenting interactions are widely based on Western norms of behavior, mostly because the research primarily focused on White, middle-class families and their children (Bornstein, 2012; Lansford, 2022). Different cultural groups possess distinct beliefs and behave in unique ways with respect to their parenting (Bornstein, 2012). Child development expectations and caregiving also vary within cultures, as families and individuals choose to pass on traditional practices or create new ones (Bornstein, 2012). Cultural differences in parenting approaches are found in daily routines such as the feeding, sleep, play, adult-child interactions, and discipline.

Parenting practices are one way that cultural groups maintain their culture (Bornstein, 2012). Understanding parenting practices and developmental expectations, from a multicultural perspective, is meaningful for early childhood educators because it guides their teaching practices as they engage more deeply with children and families.

Parenting approaches are not the sole influencer of a child’s developmental progression and life trajectory. They are only one force within a system of forces that impacts the ways that children develop over time, and should, therefore, be studied with caution to ensure that families are not inappropriately labeled based on a singular observation of a parent’s interactions with their children. Because there is wide variation within each culture in terms of their history, beliefs, languages, and childrearing values (Bornstein, 2010; Lansford, 2022), early childhood educators should take the opportunity to talk with parents and extended family members to better understand the family’s cultural norms and their expectations for their children. Understanding the beliefs that underlie parents’ behaviors helps explain differences in behaviors.

Recognizing Bias, Stereotypes, and Discrimination

Implicit biases, explicit biases, microaggressions, and the use of stereotypes are developed and maintained based on the conscious and unconscious beliefs embedded into society (Bonilla-Silva, 1997). These forms of discrimination, acts by dominant members of society that have harmful impacts on others, can shape perceptions, interactions, and decisions about a particular group of people, often without individuals being fully aware of their influence. (Kendall, 2019).

In Table 2c below, review the following definitions of discriminatory actions (Gilliam et al., 2016; Kendall, 2016; Pierce, 1974; Smith et al., 2016).

When teachers harbor unfair assumptions about children, based on biases and stereotypes, they perpetuate an opportunity gap (Milner, 2012). These missed opportunities significantly shape their life outcomes. These biases are often deeply ingrained in society. As children grow and develop, they begin to observe and internalize the attitudes and behaviors of the adults around them, including their parents, caregivers, and educators. In Table 2d below, you will explore what this could look like in an early childhood education setting.

The biases, microaggressions, and stereotypes mentioned above influence not only how children are perceived by adults but also how children perceive themselves and others. When children witness or experience bias in early childhood settings, it can affect their self-esteem, sense of worth, and willingness to engage in activities or pursue certain interests. For example, a child who repeatedly experiences bias may begin to internalize these negative perceptions and may be less likely to participate in group activities or raise their hand to answer questions. Conversely, children who are consistently favored because of their race, gender, or abilities may develop an inflated sense of their own abilities and begin to believe that certain traits are inherent to their group, rather than being the result of individual talent or effort.

The long-term effects of implicit and explicit biases, microaggressions, and stereotypes can lead to significant disparities in children’s educational outcomes, social development, and mental health. Children who face these forms of discrimination may experience increased stress, lower academic performance, and difficulty forming healthy relationships with peers and adults. They may also be at a higher risk for developing mental health issues, such as anxiety or depression, due to feeling undervalued or marginalized.

Early childhood educators need to engage in self-reflection and actively work to identify and challenge their own biases. This can include participating in professional development, fostering a classroom environment that celebrates all children’s identities, and providing equal opportunities for all children, regardless of background. By recognizing and addressing biases, educators can create a more inclusive and supportive environment where every child feels valued and capable of reaching their full potential.

2.4 Culturally Relevant Practices

A family’s culture is central to a child’s learning (Gay, 2003). High-quality relationship-based care is fundamental to early brain development, emotional regulation, and learning (Center on the Developing Child, 2012) and understanding the cultural context of a child’s family allows early childhood educators to provide more meaningful and effective support. Educators have a responsibility to understand family life because it directly impacts how children perceive themselves, interact with others, and engage with learning opportunities. By recognizing and respecting diverse family structures, traditions, and practices, teachers can build trusting relationships with families, fostering a sense of inclusion and belonging for children. This section introduces the concept of culturally relevant pedagogy, which emphasizes aligning teaching practices with the cultural contexts of children and families.

Culturally Responsive Teaching (CRP)

Culturally responsive teaching (CRP) is a practice of teaching that extends from the central ideas associated with CRP. Geneva Gay (2002, 2003) describes culturally responsive practices as those that use “the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning more relevant to and effective for them; it teaches to and through strengths of these students.” In Figure 2b below, an early childhood teacher is coloring with children. While she is coloring, she incorporates images and themes that reflect the backgrounds of the children in the classroom, including holidays, foods, and customs. She also encourages creativity without judgment, might label colors in multiple languages and encourages children to express themselves in their home languages. By doing these things, coloring becomes a culturally responsive activity that fosters inclusivity, self-identity, and meaningful connections in the classroom.

Benefits of Culturally Responsive Teaching

In Table 2e below, Align Samuels (2018) exemplifies how culturally responsive teaching adheres to the whole child:

Below are examples of how early childhood educators can adopt teaching strategies in alignment with the theory of culturally relevant pedagogy:

Academic Success

Culturally responsive early educators do the following:

• Ensure the academic success of children by viewing them as capable learners (Ladson-Billings, 1995a).
• Challenge children by providing them with age- and developmentally appropriate activities that guide learning across all domains of development (Ladson-Billings, 1995a).
• Understand that culture is central to the process of learning (Ladson-Billings, 1995a).
• Serve as cultural bridges (Gay, 2003), building learning that affords all children opportunities to see themselves, their families, and their communities represented within the classroom curriculum.
• Realize that children arrive at their programs with a predetermined set of knowledge, abilities, and experiences.
• Scaffold their approaches to integrate new learning concepts that guide children toward meeting new developmental milestones by observing young children in natural play settings and recording their strengths and areas for improvement. Observations also inform teachers about how to differentiate learning to meet the unique developmental and cultural needs of each child.

Cultural Competence

Culturally responsive early educators also do the following:

• Build cultural competence within themselves (Gay, 2002, 2003; Ladson-Billings, 1992) as a means for building cultural competence in young children, meaning they experience different cultures to teach young children through a multicultural and anti-racist lens. Teachers also become culturally competent by reflecting on their own worldviews, cultural practices, social norms, and biases and by expanding their understanding of diversity beyond their personal realities.
• Build lessons that guide children’s understanding of their own culture, which not only builds self-identity but also increases the child’s ability to respect and understand the cultural perspectives of others. A culturally competent child is also “bicultural,” meaning able to navigate between home and school environments (Delpit, 2002).

Socio-political Consciousness

Culturally responsive early educators incorporate the following in their teachings:

• Support children’s development of socio-political consciousness by building learning experiences that allow children to analyze and discuss societal worldviews, customs, and norms (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
• Grant children the freedom to ask questions that challenge societal norms from multiple perspectives, such as questioning inequalities and inequities that are based on race, racism, poverty, language, gender, class, and immigration status (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).
• Allow young children to critique the cultural norms, values, mores, and institutions that produce and maintain social inequities” (Ladson-Billings, 1995b).

2.5 Celebrations and Holidays

Involving families in the development and implementation of celebrations and activities is essential to creating a culturally inclusive environment. Families bring unique perspectives, traditions, and values that can enrich the learning experience for all children and ensure that holiday activities reflect the diversity of the community. Collaborative planning with families allows educators to better understand what is meaningful to them and to avoid unintentional biases or stereotypes in holiday representation. Additionally, engaging families fosters a sense of ownership and partnership, reinforcing the connection between home and school.

Respectful and honest conversations with families can ensure that we have an understanding of why particular celebrations are important, what is being celebrated, and what part of the celebration is meaningful to individual families. Families often have some interesting and wonderful ideas about how you can introduce celebrations to children. Figure 2c below demonstrates a classroom celebration involving families.

Celebrations

Celebrations are a wonderful way of supporting connections between children, families and communities. Sharing and participating in celebrations can create joy and a sense of belonging for children and often provide the opportunity to develop respect and understanding for diverse values and beliefs. Even the smallest celebrations can have a profound impact on children’s emotional and social development.

Celebrations in early childhood settings are important for fostering a sense of community, belonging, and cultural appreciation. They provide opportunities to honor individual achievements, milestones, and diverse traditions. Whether big or small, these events provide opportunities to acknowledge both individual and collective accomplishments, reinforcing the idea that each member is a valued part of the group. Incorporating various cultural and family traditions into these celebrations ensures that all children see their backgrounds reflected and respected. This inclusivity promotes understanding, empathy, and appreciation for diversity among young learners.

Examples of Celebrations

• Individual Milestones: Recognizing personal achievements, such as mastering a new skill or reaching a developmental milestone, boosts self-esteem and motivation.
• Seasonal Events: Observing changes in seasons through themed activities or simple nature walks helps children connect with the world around them.
• Cultural and Family Traditions: Celebrating various cultural holidays and family customs allows children to share and learn about different practices, fostering a global perspective.
• Author or Book Celebrations: Highlighting favorite authors or books encourages a love for reading and storytelling.
• National Observances: Participating in events like the National Association for the Education of Young Children’s (NAEYC)’s Week of the Young Child emphasizes the importance of early childhood education.

Implementing inclusive celebrations in early childhood education involves several key strategies to ensure that all children and families feel valued and respected. See Table 2f below for a few of these strategies.

By thoughtfully integrating celebrations into the early childhood environment, educators create a rich, inclusive atmosphere that honors each child’s unique identity and fosters a strong sense of community.

Holidays

Acknowledging holidays in early learning programs can bring joy to many families, staff, and children and serve as a valuable opportunity to build connections between programs and families (Sparks et al., 2023). At the same time, holidays can present challenges in ensuring that all children, families, and staff feel respected and included, as well as in teaching children about the diversity of the world. Deciding whether and how to include holidays in the early education curriculum requires thoughtful reflection on the potential impact on each child and family, as well as consideration of the cultural, religious, and personal significance of these events.

In Table 2g Sparks and colleagues (2023) asks us to consider several factors prior to integrating the celebration of holidays into a preschool curriculum:

Additionally, Sparks et al. (2023) encourages early childhood educators to engage with history and learn from the experiences of families prior to including a holiday policy within the program. Early childhood educators should be willing to teach young children about the true meanings behind particular holidays and what it means to the cultural or religious groups who celebrate such events instead of simply celebrating holidays. According to these authors, teaching about a holiday requires the following:

• Teachers communicate accurate information appropriate to the children’s levels of cognitive development in a clear and honest manner.
• Teachers make it very clear that the class can enjoy learning about each other’s holidays while holding to their own family’s beliefs and traditions.
• Reading a book to children or inviting individual children and their family members to share what they do during one of their holidays.

Celebrating a holiday, on the other hand, engages children as participants on the assumption that their families believe in the holiday’s meaning in the way that those who regularly celebrate it do (Sparks et al., 2023). This practice may be perceived as disrespectful by some families. Celebrating a holiday is appropriate in faith-based programs or in programs in which the holiday is part of a belief system truly shared by every family in the program (Sparks et al., 2023). Even then, remember that within a belief system, different families celebrate in different ways (Sparks et al., 2023).

2.6 Conclusion

As an early childhood educator, understanding the concept of family is vital to our role in supporting the well-being and development of the children in our care. Families, in all their diverse forms, shape children’s identities, values, and sense of belonging. These influences directly impact how children learn, communicate, and interact with others. In our ever-evolving world, where social, economic, and cultural landscapes shift constantly, it is crucial for educators to be aware of the many ways family life influences children.

Recognizing the complexities of family dynamics helps us create inclusive and equitable environments where every child and family feels valued and supported. By addressing our own implicit and explicit biases, challenging stereotypes, and embracing culturally responsive practices, we, as educators, can promote social justice and ensure that all families feel respected. When we honor the unique strengths, traditions, and perspectives each family brings, we can foster strong partnerships that enhance the learning experience for children.

As we continue to navigate the diverse and varied family structures present in our classrooms, we must remain committed to celebrating diversity, nurturing relationships, and empowering families to succeed. Building these connections not only benefits the child’s educational journey but also supports the family and strengthens the broader community. It’s through this partnership that we can truly help children thrive in an environment where their family’s experiences are valued and honored.

Learning Activities

2.7 References

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Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education 53(2), 106–16. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022487102053002003

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Gilliam, W., Maupin, A., Reyes, C., Accavitti, M., and Shic, F. (2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions? Yale Child Study Center. https://marylandfamiliesengage.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Preschool-Implicit-Bias-Policy-Brief.pdf

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Ladson-Billings, G. (1992). Culturally relevant teaching: The key to making multicultural education work. In C.A. Grant (Ed.), Research and multicultural education: From margins to the mainstream (pp. 107-121). Falmer Press.

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Samuels, A. J. (2018). Exploring culturally responsive pedagogy: Teachers’ perceptions on fostering equitable and inclusive classrooms. SRATE Journal, 27(1), 22-30. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1166706.pdf

Smith, W. A., Mustaff, J. B., Jones, C. M., Curry, T. J., & Allen, W. R. (2016). You make me wanna holler throw up both my hands!: Campus culture, Black misandric microaggressions and racial battle fatigue. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 29(9), 1189-1209. http://ereserve.library.utah.edu/Annual/ECS/6950/Smith/you.pdf

Sparks, L. D., Edwards, J. O., & Goins, C. M. (2023). Holidays in a diverse world: Applying anti-bias thinking to curriculum. National Association for the Education of Young Children. https://www.naeyc.org/resources/blog/holidays-diverse-world-applying-anti-bias-thinking-curriculum

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2009). The 2009 UNESCO framework for cultural statistics. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184082

Yosso, T. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 8(1), 69–91. https://thrive.arizona.edu/sites/default/files/Whose%20culture%20has%20capital_A%20critical%20race%20theory%20discussion%20of%20community%20cultural%20wealth_1.pdf

Images:

Figure 2a: Aitubo. (2025). Flux (v1.0). [Artificial intelligence system]. https://aitubo.ai/

Figure 2b: Aitubo. (2025). Flux (v1.0). [Artificial intelligence system]. https://aitubo.ai/

Figure 2c: Aitubo. (2025). Flux (v1.0). [Artificial intelligence system]. https://aitubo.ai/

Figure 2d: “NSF Deveselu Holds Easter Egg Hunt for Romanian School [Image 6 of 6]” by PO1 Jeremy Starr is in the Public Domain. The appearance of U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) visual information does not imply or constitute DoD endorsement.

Videos:

PsychExamReview. (2018, March 8). Baumrind’s Parenting Styles (Intro Psych Tutorial #181) [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hljt9xSlYsc&t=3s

ZERO TO THREE. (2017, May 19). Who is being expelled from preschools, and why? [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EQqAQgBwJxY