1.1 Introduction

The concept of family is complex and varies significantly across cultures, societies, and time periods. While it is often seen as the foundational unit of society, the definition of family is not fixed and can encompass a range of structures, relationships, and roles. This chapter introduces the multifaceted nature of family, exploring its diverse definitions and the various forms it can take. By understanding the concept of family, we gain deeper insight into its profound significance, especially in shaping children’s development within both the home and the broader community environment.

1.2 What is a Family?

According to the Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, the definition of family diversity refers to a broad range of characteristics or dimensions on which families vary, along with a recognition that many different family types function effectively (Van Eeden-Moorefield, B., & Demo, D. H., 2007). Historically, the term family diversity refers to variations from traditional families. This statement implies that there is only one type of family, and all others are dysfunctional and deviant. As our world and society change, the definition of family has to evolve as well. Changing your ideas and definition of family is part of becoming an inclusive program.

What many consider as “family” has changed over time partly due to divorce, remarriage, globalization, cohabitation, same-sex parents, and more women entering the workforce full-time (Kendall, 2019; Parker & Minkin, 2023). As reported by the Pew Research Center (Parker & Minken, 2023), the change in the American family structure has shifted our thinking about what constitutes a family unit. Today, families are more diverse in their composition and gender roles.

1.3 Family Structures

Family structures are diverse and ever evolving, shaped by cultural, societal, and individual differences. Understanding these various family configurations is crucial for educators to create inclusive and supportive environments that recognize and respect the unique needs of every child. This section will explore different family types and their dynamics, beginning with the traditional nuclear family. The traditional nuclear family consists of two parents—typically a mother and father—and their biological or adopted children (Feeney et al., 2019). While this family structure has historically been viewed as the societal norm, contemporary families come in many forms, reflecting the broad spectrum of values, beliefs, and circumstances that influence how children are raised. Explore more family types in Table 1a below. Recognizing and valuing these diverse family types are key to promoting acceptance, understanding, and equality in educational settings.

By exploring and understanding various family structures, educators can create more inclusive and nurturing environments that support the unique needs of every child. Recognizing the diversity of families not only reflects the reality of children’s lives but also promotes empathy, respect, and community within the classroom.

1.4 Trends

Historically, there has been societal pressure for parents to develop families that are considered traditional or nuclear (Kendall, 2019). From a traditional perspective, the term nuclear family is defined as follows:

“A group of people who are related to one another by blood, marriage or adoption and who live together, form an economic unit, and bear and raise children” (Kendall, 2019, p. 193).

However, this traditional definition of family has expanded over time to include diverse and multicultural notions. A modern family incorporates more diverse living arrangements and relationships, including single-parent households, cohabiting unmarried couples, domestic partnerships of lesbian or gay couples, and several generations of family members (i.e., grandparents, parents and children) living under the same roof (Kendall, 2019). To include all the diverse living arrangements, Kendall (2019) defines the modern family as the following: “…relationships in which people live together with commitment, form an economic unit and care for any young, and consider the group critical to their identity.”

Similarly, the Administration of Children and Families (2020) explains how family can be: “…biological or nonbiological, chosen or circumstantial. They are connected through cultures, languages, traditions, shared experiences, emotional commitment, and mutual support (p. 1).”

Let’s pause to think about the nonbiological aspects of a family’s unit. Have you ever considered how some of the individuals in your life, who aren’t biologically related to you by blood or marriage, still hold an irreplaceable spot at family gatherings? These connections, which we often take for granted, are part of what sociologists call fictive kinship (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986; Fordham, 1998). This fascinating social arrangement allows us to form family bonds based on factors beyond genetics and legal ties. Explore examples of fictive kinship in Table 1b below. Fictive kinship refers to the “intense sense of group loyalty and membership extending beyond conventional family relationships” (Fordham & Ogbu, 1986).

As illustrated by the above definitions of “family,” the way that we, as a society, define “family” and its evolving trends are often captured through the media. The media and other forms of social media influence our understanding about what constitutes a family.

Let’s take, for example, American sitcoms. During earlier years, particularly around the mid-1900s, television shows predominantly portrayed the image of the nuclear family (Kendall, 2019). This family image is often associated with the Leave it to Beaver family, noted by the popular sitcom television show that ran from 1957 until 1963. The family unit included a devoted and docile mother, June Cleaver, who served as a homemaker, ensuring that the home was well-maintained and that the children’s affairs were maintained. Ward Cleaver, the father/husband, worked a full-time job outside of the home and served as the family’s breadwinner. June and Ward’s two children, Beaver and Wally Cleaver, were the center of their parents’ lives.

Over time, the social media image of the family has altered. Take for example the contemporary sitcom This Is Us, which concluded its sixth season in 2022. This Is Us features a “traditional” family but with much more diversity. For example, it captures the life of a White mother and White father who married young and worked hard to raise their three children. Jack and Rebecca (the parents) birthed a set of twins (Kate and Kevin) and adopted a Black child, who was abandoned by his drug-addicted father (Randall) after the death of his mother during his infancy years. Thus, the family became more diverse, illustrating both a mixed-race and multigenerational family (as the original three children aged), and the family grew to include two mixed-race grandchildren and one grandchild who was born deaf. Beyond adoption, the sitcom extends its story to include death, divorce, separation, and remarriage.

Girlfriends, which concluded its seventh season in 2008, illustrates a fictive kinship. The comedy presents a peer group of individuals in their 20s who live in Los Angeles. The five main characters are best friends who enjoy holidays together, date each other, and remain close friends as they age. When necessary, they also shared living spaces with one another. Ultimately, they considered themselves a family. Four of these young people occupy full-time jobs, serving as lawyers, a real estate agent, and an executive assistant. One friend, Lynn, struggles to maintain full-time employment and at times shares living space with Joan (the lawyer), the more responsible, successful, and financially secure friend.

The data presented by Aragão et al. (2023) and the Pew Research Center, along with the sitcom examples shared above, inform us about how the institution of the family – the arrangement and its function – has evolved, becoming much more complex, rich, and diverse. However, in many respects, the media – including television, film, advertising, and other outlets – continues to prioritize the image of the nuclear family in shaping societal perceptions of family structures and norms. As you engage with various forms of media, be mindful of the images that are portrayed. What kind of people and families do you see represented? While the representation of women, people of color, and people of differing sexualities and gender expressions has increased in media, they still predominantly play less consequential characters within the plot lines.

As early childhood educators recognize and honor the differences in family structures, they must be mindful of how the common thread noted within all family units is commitment, caring, and the close emotional ties (Benokraitis, 2015). Individuals can achieve such family goals without mirroring a traditional family unit.

1.5 Trends Affecting Families

Families are dynamic units that evolve in response to broader social, economic, and cultural shifts. Educators need to understand the trends that influence families to better support children’s development and foster inclusive environments. This section explores various trends, such as changes in family structures, economic factors, and the influence of technology, and considers how these shifts impact family dynamics and early childhood education.

Changing Family Structures

Over recent decades, family structures have become more diverse. Traditional nuclear families are less common, while single-parent, same-sex parent, and blended families are increasingly visible (Feeney et al., 2019). In early childhood education, it is crucial for teachers to recognize and accommodate this diversity by adopting inclusive teaching practices. Educators must avoid making assumptions about family roles and responsibilities, ensuring that all children feel respected and supported in their family dynamics (Gonzalez-Mena, 2016). Every family is unique, and as early childhood teachers, it is essential that we respect and celebrate these differences to create an inclusive and supportive learning environment for all children, even if those family structures don’t match our own. Being a reflective teacher will assist us in this area.

Economic Pressures

Economic shifts, such as the rise of dual-income households and an increase in income inequality, have placed additional strain on families. Many families now rely on both parents working, which can affect childcare arrangements and family time (Owen & Ware, 2020). These economic pressures can lead to stress that impacts parenting styles and the availability of resources for children, which, in turn, can affect children’s emotional and academic development (Bronfenbrenner, 2005).

Technological Advancements

Technology has profoundly reshaped how families communicate and interact. The rise of smartphones, social media, and digital entertainment has affected family dynamics, with some families experiencing a “technology gap” between generations (Livingstone, 2018). Children are now exposed to digital devices at increasingly younger ages, which can influence their social skills, attention spans, and learning styles. As a result, early childhood educators must find a balance between using technology as a learning tool and encouraging traditional, play-based learning to support children’s development (Palaiologou, 2016).

Cultural Diversity and Globalization

Immigration and increased globalization have led to more culturally diverse family groups. Many children grow up in households that blend cultural traditions and languages, creating a rich mix of experiences (Gonzalez-Mena, 2016). Indigenous cultures also play a significant role in shaping family structures and values. Many indigenous families emphasize intergenerational caregiving, where grandparents, aunts, uncles, and even tribal communities share responsibilities in raising children. Traditional knowledge, storytelling, and spiritual practices are often passed down through generations, strengthening cultural identity and resilience.

It is important for early childhood educators to incorporate multicultural and indigenous perspectives into their curriculum. This includes recognizing indigenous ways of knowing, honoring tribal sovereignty, and integrating culturally responsive teaching practices that reflect the histories, languages, and traditions of indigenous peoples. By valuing and respecting the diverse backgrounds that families bring to the classroom, teachers can create a more inclusive and supportive learning environment that affirms all children’s identities and lived experiences (Feeney et al., 2019).

Work-Life Balance and Parental Roles

As societal norms shift, there has been a growing expectation for more shared parenting responsibilities between mothers and fathers. The concept of “work-life balance” has gained prominence as families try to navigate professional demands and caregiving roles (Bianchi & Milkie, 2010). The rise of remote and hybrid work arrangements has further reshaped family dynamics, allowing some parents greater flexibility to be more involved in daily caregiving tasks. However, blurred boundaries between work and home life can also present challenges, as parents may struggle to set limits on work obligations while meeting the needs of their children.

Work-life balance challenges can create stress, but they also offer opportunities for fathers to take more active roles in caregiving, challenging traditional gender roles in parenting and fostering a more equitable division of family responsibilities (Feeney et al., 2019). Additionally, nontraditional family structures, including same-sex parents, single parents, and multigenerational households, have become more visible, further expanding conversations about equitable caregiving and the diverse ways families navigate work and home life.

As workplace policies continue to evolve, including paid parental leave, flexible scheduling, and family-friendly benefits, there is potential to further support parents in managing their dual roles. For early childhood educators, understanding these changing family dynamics is essential in fostering empathy, collaboration, and support for children and families who are adapting to new models of work and caregiving.

Health and Well-Being

Rising concerns about physical and mental health have significantly influenced family life. Increased awareness of mental health issues, particularly among parents and children, has led to shifts in how families approach well-being and seek support (Owen & Ware, 2020). Mental health challenges, including stress, anxiety, and depression, are increasingly being recognized in early childhood. As a result, teachers must be prepared to support children from families coping with health-related issues, ensuring that children’s emotional needs are met and their development is nurtured (Bronfenbrenner, 2005).

However, while awareness of mental and physical health needs has grown, many families continue to struggle with access to adequate healthcare and insurance. Families with lower incomes, immigrant families, and those living in rural areas often face significant barriers to receiving timely medical and mental health care. Limited provider availability, long wait times, high out-of-pocket costs, and restrictive insurance networks prevent many children from receiving early intervention, counseling, or necessary medical treatments. Additionally, the stigma surrounding mental health in some communities may discourage families from seeking help, further delaying crucial support.

Families who rely on employer-provided healthcare may struggle if they have inconsistent work schedules, part-time jobs, or gig-based employment that does not offer benefits. Meanwhile, families who do qualify for Medicaid or the Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) may still encounter difficulties finding providers who accept public insurance, particularly for mental health services. Gaps in coverage can leave families with limited options, forcing them to make difficult decisions about prioritizing healthcare over other essential expenses.

The effects of these challenges extend into the classroom, where children experiencing untreated physical or mental health issues may have difficulty focusing, regulating emotions, or fully engaging in learning. Early childhood educators play a crucial role in recognizing signs of distress, providing a supportive environment, and connecting families to available community resources. Schools and early childhood programs can help bridge gaps by integrating social-emotional learning, trauma-informed practices, and partnerships with healthcare providers to ensure children receive the care they need.

1.6 Family Circumstances

Family members’ actions, behaviors, and decision-making processes are often shaped by a variety of circumstances, including socioeconomic status, cultural expectations, mental and physical health, and family dynamics. Understanding how these factors influence family life is essential for educators to support children’s development and family well-being. This section will explore how these circumstances affect both children and adults in families, shaping relationships, behavior, and educational outcomes.

Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Socioeconomic status is one of the most significant factors influencing family life. Families with lower incomes often face increased stress due to financial instability, limited access to resources, and a lack of time for meaningful family interactions because of work demands (Conger & Donnellan, 2007). These stresses can affect parenting styles, sometimes leading to authoritarian approaches or reduced supervision, depending on the family’s circumstances. Children from low-SES families may experience challenges such as limited access to educational resources, extracurricular activities, and adequate healthcare, which can hinder their academic performance and social-emotional development (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002).

Parental Mental Health

Parental mental health plays a critical role in shaping family dynamics. Parents experiencing mental health challenges, such as depression or anxiety, may struggle with emotional regulation, which can impact their parenting behaviors, family interactions, and decision-making (Lovejoy et al., 2000). Children of parents with mental health conditions may experience emotional distress, behavioral issues, or take on greater responsibilities within the household, leading to developmental challenges. Support systems, such as therapy or counseling for both parents and children, are crucial in mitigating these effects and promoting healthier family functioning (National Scientific Council on the Developing Child, 2010).

Family Conflict and Divorce

High levels of family conflict or divorce can lead to significant changes in family dynamics and parenting approaches. Research indicates that parental conflict, whether resolved or ongoing, affects the emotional stability of both parents and children (Amato, 2010). Divorce, while sometimes necessary, often leads to changes in living arrangements, economic status, and parenting time, all of which influence how family members interact and make decisions. Children in families with high conflict or divorce may experience emotional turmoil, academic challenges, and behavioral issues, especially if the conflict is prolonged or if they feel caught between parents. However, children in divorced families can adapt well over time, particularly when parental conflict is minimized and a stable, nurturing environment is provided (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).

Cultural Expectations

Culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, customs, practices, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a group of people or society. It includes elements such as language, religion, food, clothing, art, traditions, and social norms, which are passed down from generation to generation. Culture shapes how individuals think, interact, and interpret their world, creating a sense of identity and belonging within a group. Cultural norms and expectations shape how families organize themselves, make decisions, and interact with each other. In many cultures, extended family plays a significant role in caregiving and decision-making, and expectations regarding children’s roles, respect for elders, and gender roles can vary widely (Gonzalez-Mena, 2016). Families with strong cultural ties may prioritize collective well-being over individual desires, influencing how they handle education, discipline, and family responsibilities. Children raised in culturally diverse families may experience expectations that differ from those of their peers, which can affect their social interactions and identity development. Educators must be culturally competent to support children from diverse backgrounds and respect family values, ensuring that all children feel valued and understood (Rogoff, 2003).

Physical Health of Family Members

The physical health of parents or children can significantly impact family life. Chronic illness or disability may require additional caregiving responsibilities, affect family routines, and influence economic decisions, especially if one or both parents must reduce work hours or leave the workforce to care for a family member (Committee on Family Caregiving for Older Adults, 2016). Children in families dealing with chronic illness or disability may experience increased anxiety, caregiving responsibilities, or feelings of isolation. Support from healthcare professionals and schools is crucial in helping these children cope with the demands placed on them by their family’s health circumstances, ensuring their emotional and developmental needs are met (Seligman & Darling, 2007).

Substance Abuse

Substance abuse within a family can disrupt normal family functioning, leading to instability, neglect, or conflict. Parents struggling with addiction may have difficulty maintaining consistent routines or providing emotional support, while other family members may either enable the behavior or attempt to compensate for the dysfunction (Rahimi & Shooli, 2024). Children in households with substance abuse are at greater risk for neglect, emotional trauma, and developmental issues. They may adopt coping mechanisms that include acting out or withdrawing, and they often require external support from schools, counselors, or social services to help address the emotional and developmental challenges they face (Kelley et al., 2010).

The circumstances within families greatly influence the actions of both children and family members, shaping their emotional, social, and developmental outcomes. By recognizing the complex factors that families face, educators can offer more compassionate, individualized support that promotes resilience and well-being for all family members.

Ecological Systems Theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory provides a framework for understanding the multiple layers of influence on a child’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979, 1986). Bronfenbrenner studied Freud, Erikson, Piaget, and other learning theorists and believed that all their theories could be enhanced by adding the dimension of context (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). What is being taught and how society interprets situations depend on who is involved in the life of a child and where a child lives or their community. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological system model explains the direct and indirect influence that systems have on an individual’s development.

Figure 1a below and corresponding text provides an overview of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, demonstrating how each layer of society has a direct impact on a child’s development:

• Microsystem: Serves as the immediate environment that impacts a child directly. The relationship between individuals and those around them must be considered. These are the people such as parents, peers, teachers, and community members, with whom the child interacts.
  • Example: Supportive parents who read to their child and provide educational activities may positively influence cognitive and language skills.
• Mesosystem: Interactions between those surrounding the individual child, like the relationship between a child’s home and school, will impact their development.
  • Example: A child whose parents are actively involved in their school life, such as attending parent-teacher conferences and volunteering for school events, may perform better academically.
• Ecosystem: Larger institutions such as the mass media or the healthcare system are ecosystems. These have an impact on families and peers and early education settings/schools who operate under policies and regulations found in these institutions.
  • Example: If a parent’s workplace offers flexible working hours or work-from-home options, the parent might have more time to spend with their children, positively impacting the child’s emotional development and family relationships.
• Macrosystem: Broader cultural and societal influences are at the level of macrosystems. These larger ideals and expectations inform institutions that will ultimately impact the individual.
  • Example: In a society that highly values individual achievement, children might be encouraged to be more competitive and independent.
• Chronosystem: All this happens in an historical context referred to as the chronosystem. Cultural values change over time, as do policies of educational institutions or governments in certain political climates. Development occurs at a point in time (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).
  • Example: The introduction of widespread Internet access and social media represents a significant chronosystem change for many children.

1.7 Classroom Resources and Strategies for Teaching Family Diversity

Understanding and teaching about diverse family patterns is crucial in early childhood education. The evolving nature of family structures requires educators to be well-versed in current literature and equipped with classroom resources that reflect the variety of family experiences. By engaging with diverse family representations, educators can create inclusive environments that honor every child’s background and provide culturally responsive pedagogy. This section will explore key literature, classroom resources, and teaching strategies related to diverse family patterns and trends.

Inclusive Curriculum Design

When planning lessons, educators should intentionally incorporate materials that reflect various family structures, creating an inclusive curriculum. This can be achieved through the selection of storybooks, family-themed projects, and discussions that allow children to share their own family experiences. Teachers can also integrate topics like adoption, foster care, and blended families into social studies or family-themed lessons (Feeney et al., 2019). Additionally, a classroom wall or bulletin board can be dedicated to showcasing the diverse family structures of the students. Each child can contribute pictures or drawings of their family, which helps foster a sense of belonging and validates the different family configurations represented in the classroom (Couchenour & Chrisman, 2018).

Collaborative Learning with Families

Encouraging families to share their unique stories and traditions with the class is an effective way to foster an inclusive environment. Inviting parents and caregivers to participate in classroom activities allows children to see different family roles and cultural practices firsthand, promoting empathy and understanding among peers (Gonzalez-Mena, 2016). Another valuable approach is assigning children a family interview project, where they can explore their family’s history, traditions, and values. This project can be expanded into a classroom discussion, where students learn about the various types of family structures that their classmates come from, further enhancing their understanding and appreciation of diversity (Gonzalez-Mena, 2016).

Use of Multimedia and Technology

Teachers can use digital tools to create interactive storytelling sessions, allowing children to explore stories about diverse families from around the world. Websites like PBS Kids and Storyline Online offer age-appropriate, family-centered stories that reflect various family patterns. Additionally, short videos or documentaries showcasing different family forms can be valuable resources. For example, Families of All Kinds (available through educational streaming services) provides a visual introduction to diverse family structures, including single-parent homes, same-sex parents, and multigenerational families, helping children gain a broader understanding of family diversity.

Exploring literature and classroom resources related to diverse family patterns is essential for creating inclusive and culturally responsive learning environments. Early childhood educators can draw from a wealth of books, research, and teaching strategies to ensure that all children see their families represented and valued in the classroom. By actively engaging with these resources, educators support the development of empathy, respect, and understanding among their students.

1.8 Conclusion

In conclusion, the study of family patterns and trends in early childhood education highlights the importance of recognizing and embracing the diverse configurations and circumstances that shape family life. As society evolves, so does the concept of family, requiring educators to adopt inclusive and culturally responsive practices. By understanding the various family structures—from traditional nuclear families to same-sex parent households, blended families, and grandparent-led homes—educators can create learning environments that reflect the lived realities of their students.

Moreover, the changing trends affecting families, such as economic pressures, technological advancements, and shifts in work-life balance, underscore the need for educators to be flexible and supportive. Family circumstances, such as socioeconomic status, mental health, and cultural expectations, influence children’s development and behavior. Thus, early childhood educators must be equipped to navigate these complexities, offering compassion and individualized support.

Ultimately, a focus on family diversity enriches the educational experience by fostering empathy, respect, and community. By exploring literature and utilizing classroom resources that represent various family dynamics, educators can ensure that every child feels seen and valued, creating a foundation for lifelong learning and inclusivity.

Learning Activities:

1.9 References

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Amato, P. (2010). Research on divorce: Continuing trends and new developments. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 650-666. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00723.x

Aragão, C., Parker, K., Greenwood, S., Baronavski, C., & Mandapat, J. C. (2023). The modern American family. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2023/09/14/the-modern-american-family/

Benokraitis, N. V. (2015). Marriages & families: Changes, choices, and constraints, 8e. Pearson.

Bianchi, S. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2010). Work and family in the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 705-725. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00726.x

Bradley, R. H. & Corwyn, R. F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135233

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). Contexts of child rearing: Problems and prospects. American Psychologist, 34(10), 844–850. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.844

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22(6), 723–742. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.22.6.723

Bronfenbrenner, U. (Ed.). (2005). Making human beings human: Bioecological perspectives on human development. Sage Publications.

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In R. M. Lerner & W. Damon (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development, 793–828. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Conger, R. D., & Donnellan, M. B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58(2007), 175–199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085551

Couchenour, D., & Chrisman, K. (2018). Families, schools, and communities: Building partnerships for educating children. Cengage Learning.

Feeney, S., Moravcik, E., & Nolte, S. (2019). Who am I in the lives of children? An introduction to early childhood education. Pearson Education.

Fordham, S. (1998). Blacked out: Dilemmas of race, identity, and success at Capital High. University of Chicago Press.

Fordham, S., & Ogbu, J. U. (1986). Black students’ school success: Coping with the “burden of acting white.” The Urban Review, 18(3), 176-206. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED281948.pdf

Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2016). Diversity in early care and education: Honoring differences. McGraw-Hill Education.

Hetherington, E. M. & Kelly, J. (2002) For better or for worse: Divorce reconsidered. New York: Norton.

Kelley, M. L., Klostermann, K., Doane, A. N., Mignone, T., Lam, W. K. K., Fals-Stewart, W. & Padilla, M. A. (2010). The case for examining and treating the combined effects of parental drug use and interparental violence on children in their homes. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15(1), 76-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.09.002

Kendall, D. (2019). Social problems in a diverse society. Pearson.

Kumar, P. (2022). Fictive kinships: Social bonds beyond blood and marriage. Sociology Institute. https://sociology.institute/sociology-of-kinship/fictive-kinship-social-bonds-beyond-blood-marriage/#What_is_fictive_kinship

Livingstone, S. (2018). The class: Living and learning in the digital age. NYU Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt18040ft

Lovejoy, C., Graczyk, P. A., O’Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20(5) 561-592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(98)00100-7

Owen, M. T., & Ware, A. M. (2020). Families and children: Diverse perspectives and impact on early childhood education. In S. L. Kagan & E. T. T. Reynolds (Eds.), Early childhood education: Dilemmas and directions (pp. 45-64). Routledge.

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Parker, K., & Minken, R. (2023). Public has mixed views on the modern American family. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/social-trends/2023/09/14/public-has-mixed-views-on-the-modern-american-family/

Rahimi, L., & Shooli, Z. A. (2024). How parental substance abuse affects family functioning and child psychological health. Iranian Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 3(2), 1-10. https://maherpub.com/jndd/article/view/291

Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. Oxford University Press.

Seligman, M., & Darling, R. B. (2007). Ordinary families, special children: A systems approach to childhood disability. Families, Systems, and Health, 25(4), 453-454. https://doi.org/10.1037/1091-7527.25.4.453

Van Eeden-Moorefield, B., & Demo, D. H. (2007). Family diversity. In G. Ritzer (Ed.), Blackwell encyclopedia of sociology. Blackwell Publishing. Blackwell Reference Online. http://www.blackwellreference.com/subscriber/book?id=g9781405124331_9781405124331

Images:

1a: “Urie_Bronfenbrenners_Bioecological_Model” by Lopezmarielys is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0