Glossary

Statements that shift the focus from assigning blame to taking ownership of your own experience.

Nonverbal communication that emphasizes or highlights specific parts of a verbal message, drawing attention to particular words or ideas.

Communication that prioritizes the other party’s needs over your own.

Fully concentrating on what the speaker is saying, both verbally and nonverbally, and striving to understand their perspective without allowing your own biases or preconceived notions to interfere.

Attacking the person making the argument instead of addressing the argument itself.

Unintentional, often unconscious gestures that satisfy a personal need that often indicate internal states like anxiety or discomfort.

Communication that marks the conclusion of the group’s work and its eventual disbandment.

This group behavior involves directly attacking other group members personally, using hostile language, or displaying overtly uncooperative behavior.

Pursuing one’s own interests at the expense of others, potentially using power or force to win.

Communication that is characterized by a forceful, often hostile approach aimed at asserting power and control over others, leading to domination and a blatant disregard for their rights, feelings, or opinions.

Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or logical argument.

Enjoying and appreciating the aesthetic qualities of a message.

Objects and accessories we choose to wear or display, including clothing, jewelry, piercings, tattoos, eyeglasses, and even the type of car we drive.

Communication that emphasizes clarity in expressing one’s needs, thoughts, and feelings openly and honestly, while maintaining respect for the rights and perspectives of others.

The extent to which an individual attempts to satisfy their own concerns in a conflict.

Assigning causes to others’ behaviors, often based on incomplete information.

The systematic process of gathering and interpreting information about the characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, values, needs, and demographics of your listeners.

A designated leader or an expert in the field making the final decision, often after consulting with the group or gathering input.

Also known as authoritarian leadership, this style involves the leader making decisions independently with little to no input from group members.

Ignoring or withdrawing from conflict.

Clearly communicating one’s own needs and standing up for oneself without disrespecting or dominating others.

Involves actively seeking to understand and meet the other person’s needs, often looking for common ground or shared solutions.

The capacity to exhibit appropriate verbal and nonverbal actions when interacting in a new culture.

Preconceived notions which can distort how we perceive and respond to others.

Preconceived notions, opinions, or inclinations that favor one side, often without a fair and objective evaluation of the facts. In communication, biases can influence how messages are encoded, transmitted, received, and interpreted, potentially leading to misunderstandings, misinterpretations, or a lack of empathy. They can stem from personal experiences, cultural backgrounds, societal norms, or individual preferences, and can be conscious or unconscious.

This group behavior involves consistently rejecting ideas or opposing group decisions without offering constructive alternatives, thereby creating obstacles to the group’s forward momentum.

A method of organizing a speech or presentation that structures the main points to demonstrate a causal relationship between events or phenomena. In this pattern, the speaker either first identifies the causes of a particular problem or situation and then discusses the effects that result, or vice versa

Explores the relationship between causes and effects, explaining how certain events or factors lead to specific outcomes.

The medium through which the message travels.

The conscious or unconscious choice of the most appropriate medium or pathway through which to send a message. This decision is critical in communication as the effectiveness and impact of a message can be significantly influenced by the chosen channel. Factors influencing channel selection include the message's urgency, complexity, sensitivity, formality, the desired level of interactivity, the audience's preferences, and the available resources.

How time is used in communication.

A method of organizing a speech or presentation where the main points are arranged in a sequential order based on time. This pattern is particularly effective for explaining historical events, processes, or step-by-step instructions, allowing the audience to follow the progression of information clearly.

A distinct group or community that exists within and is part of a larger, dominant culture, yet possesses its own unique set of beliefs, values, norms, communication patterns, and practices.

This power is based on the ability to punish or impose negative consequences if others do not comply.

Involves your knowledge of another culture, including its norms, practices, and conventions.

Working together to find a win–win solution.

A cultural value that emphasizes the importance of the group, community, or society over the individual.

The process of generating meaning by sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple contexts.

An individual's fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. Often referred to as "stage fright" in the context of public speaking, communication apprehension can manifest in various forms. Symptoms can range from mild nervousness to severe panic, impacting a speaker's ability to prepare, deliver, and engage effectively with their audience.

Asserting your position at the expense of others.

Nonverbal cues that add to, elaborate on, or reinforce a verbal message.

A situation where members agree to solutions they don’t truly believe in because of the volume of decisions being made, which can result in less effective outcomes.

The group member who offers compromises and admits errors to maintain group harmony. Willing to yield their own position for the sake of the group.

Finding a middle ground where both parties give up something.

An inevitable aspect of human interaction, conflict stems from differences in opinions, values, or goals.

This group behavior is the intentional act of provoking arguments, making inflammatory comments, or trying to create division and tension among group members.

The habitual patterns of behavior and communication strategies that individuals tend to employ when confronted with disagreements, opposition, or perceived threats to their interests.

A discussion and deliberation process where all group members work towards finding a solution with which everyone can agree

Feedback delivered with the specific intention of helping an individual improve their performance, behavior, or understanding, rather than simply pointing out flaws. It is characterized by being specific, actionable, and delivered in a supportive and respectful manner, often focusing on observable actions or outcomes rather than personal attributes.

The content of an effective presentation is meticulously planned, focused, and well-supported, ensuring that the message is clear, credible, and compelling to the audience.

Refers to the environment or situation in which communication takes place.

Nonverbal cues that send a message that is directly opposite to the verbal one.

The extent to which an individual attempts to satisfy the concerns of the other person involved in the conflict.

The group member who connects ideas, organizes information, and integrates contributions.

Evaluating a message for accuracy, validity, and credibility.

Tangible objects created by members of a culture that hold cultural significance and convey meaning about their shared beliefs, values, and practices.

Refers to an individual’s capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings. It encompasses cognitive, motivational, behavioral, and metacognitive elements.

A complex and multifaceted system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifacts that characterize a group or society.

Established and accepted ways of behaving or doing things within a particular culture, often passed down through generations.

This group behavior describes a pervasive negative outlook where an individual consistently expresses doubt, dismisses new ideas, and makes pessimistic comments about any group initiative.

Interpreting meaning based on one’s own experiences, knowledge, and cultural background.

Often referred to as participative leadership, this style involves leaders who encourage group participation in decision making.

Feedback that is delivered in a negative, unhelpful, or demeaning manner, often focusing on personal flaws, past mistakes, or general shortcomings rather than specific behaviors that can be changed. It is typically characterized by a lack of actionable advice, a focus on blame, and a tone that can be hostile, sarcastic, or dismissive.

Also known as a preparation outline or full-sentence outline, a detailed outline is comprehensive and polished. This outline uses complete sentences for every point, from the thesis statement down to the specific pieces of supporting material.

This individual behavior involves introducing irrelevant topics, telling off-topic jokes, or engaging in other behaviors that divert the group’s attention away from its primary objectives.

The prevailing and most influential culture within a given society or region, typically holding the greatest power, influence, and control over societal institutions, norms, values, and communication practices.

This group behavior refers to an individual’s tendency to monopolize discussions and control the flow of conversation, preventing other members from contributing their thoughts or opinions.

A cultural value that promotes equality among people, asserting that all individuals are fundamentally equal in worth, rights, and opportunities, regardless of their social status, background, gender, or other characteristics.

The group member who expands on suggestions or ideas offered by others, providing examples, explanations, and details to help the group understand the implications of a proposal. This role helps clarify and develop concepts, ensuring that all members are on the same page and that ideas are thoroughly explored before a decision is made.

Specific, culturally understood gestures that have a direct verbal translation and can often stand alone without words.

The capacity to understand and manage one's own emotions, as well as to perceive, understand, and influence the emotions of others.

Understanding and responding to the speaker’s emotions and perspective.

The ability to understand and share the feelings, perspectives, and experiences of another person, as if one were experiencing them themselves. In the context of communication and perception, empathy involves not only intellectual understanding of another's situation but also an emotional resonance with their state, without necessarily agreeing with or condoning their actions.

Translating thoughts, emotions, and ideas into a form suitable for transmission.

The group member who praises, supports, and acknowledges the contributions of others. Creates a positive and welcoming atmosphere.

The group member who spurs the group to action and motivates the group to higher productivity levels.

The tendency to view one's own culture as the central, normal, or superior standard by which all other cultures are judged. An ethnocentric perspective often leads to a biased interpretation of other cultural practices, values, and communication styles, seeing them as "different" or "wrong" simply because they deviate from one's own cultural norms.

The tendency to view one’s own culture or co-culture as superior, or as the standard against which all other cultures should be judged.

The group member who analyzes ideas, assesses feasibility, and evaluates the group’s progress.

The group member who keeps the group on track, manages the agenda, and monitors progress.

This power comes from an individual’s specialized knowledge, skills, or expertise that others value and rely upon.

Delivering a presentation from a well-prepared outline, allowing for flexibility and spontaneity.

Presenting only two options or choices as the only possibilities when, in reality, more alternatives exist.

The receiver’s response to a message.

The circular process within communication where a receiver's response to a message is sent back to the original sender, who then interprets it and potentially adjusts their subsequent messages. This continuous cycle of message and response aids with effective communication, allowing participants to confirm understanding, clarify intentions, correct misunderstandings, and adapt their communication strategies in real time. Feedback can be verbal (e.g., questions, affirmations, disagreements) or nonverbal (e.g., head nods, facial expressions, body language) and can be explicit or implicit.

This strategy emphasizes separating the problem from the individual involved.

The group member who accepts and supports the ideas and decisions of the group. Goes along with the group’s direction.

The stage when a group gets to know each other and the group’s purpose, with a focus on establishing ground rules, defining roles, and understanding the task at hand.

This level of touch signals warmth, support, and closeness between friends. It’s more personal than social touch but typically not romantic.

A cognitive bias where we overemphasize internal factors (like personality or effort) and underestimate external factors (like situation or environment) when explaining other people's behavior.

The group member who encourages participation from all members and ensures everyone has a chance to speak and regulates communication flow and prevents domination by a few individuals.

A general statement or concept obtained by inference from specific cases.

This group behavior involves speaking negatively or spreading rumors about other group members behind their backs, rather than addressing issues directly.

Structured discussions held after meetings or activities to reflect on the group’s performance.

The shared, often unstated rules or guidelines that establish expectations for how members should behave and interact within a group. These norms define acceptable conduct, communication patterns, and overall group culture, contributing to its stability and effectiveness.

A situation in which the desire for agreement outweighs critical evaluation.

A belief system in which individuals believe that their abilities, intelligence, and qualities are not fixed traits, but can be developed and improved through dedication, hard work, and continuous learning.

Allowing one positive trait to influence your overall perception of a person.

Communication through touch.

The group member who mediates conflicts, reduces tension, and helps resolve disagreements. Seeks to find common ground and promote cooperation.

Drawing a broad conclusion based on insufficient or biased evidence, typically from a small or unrepresentative sample.

A physiological process, the passive reception of sound waves by the ear and their transmission to the brain.

Cultures where there is a preference for more egalitarian relationships and a belief that power should be distributed as evenly as possible.

Cultures where much of the meaning in communication is not explicitly stated in words but is instead derived from the surrounding context, nonverbal cues, shared understanding, and the relationship between the communicators. Messages are often indirect, nuanced, and rely heavily on implicit knowledge and shared cultural assumptions.

Allowing one negative trait to influence your overall perception of a person.

Gestures that accompany and literally “illustrate” what is being said verbally, making the message clearer or more vivid.

A psychological pattern in which an individual doubts their accomplishments and has a persistent, internalized fear of being exposed as a "fraud," despite external evidence of their competence and success. In the context of public speaking and communication, someone experiencing imposter syndrome might feel that their knowledge, skills, or even their right to speak on a topic are insufficient, even when they are objectively well-prepared and capable.

Delivering a speech with little to no preparation ahead of time.

Requirements for individual members to feel valued, engaged, and motivated within a group setting.

A cultural value that emphasizes the importance of individual autonomy, independence, and self-reliance over the needs or goals of the group. In individualistic cultures, identity is often defined by personal achievements, unique characteristics, and individual choices.

The group member who provides relevant information, shares expertise, and offers personal experiences.

This group behavior is the deliberate act of withholding crucial data, insights, or knowledge that is relevant to the group’s task, thus hindering collective problem-solving and decision-making.

The group member who asks for clarification, seeks relevant facts, and ensures the group has necessary data.

The accurate reception and retention of information.

The group member who proposes new ideas, suggests solutions, and offers fresh perspectives.

A two-way process that depicts communication as a series of exchanges between a sender and a receiver, incorporating the crucial element of feedback. In this model, participants alternate roles as senders and receivers, taking turns to send messages and provide responses.

Conflict that focuses on clashes rooted in individual values, goals, or relationships.

The final stage of the perception process, where an individual assigns meaning and understanding to the information that has been selected and organized from their environment. This is a highly subjective process, as the meaning assigned to stimuli is influenced by a multitude of factors, including one's personal experiences, cultural background, beliefs, values, attitudes, current emotional state, and expectations.

Intimate space is the closest of the four distance zones. It is the distance that extends from touch to about 18 inches away from a person.

Communication that occurs within an individual, involving an internal dialogue, reflection, and the processing of thoughts and feelings. This form of communication is crucial for the development and maintenance of one's self-concept, as it encompasses self-talk, internal monologues, analyzing experiences, planning, problem solving, and interpreting messages from the external world through one's own internal framework.

A model of self-awareness that helps illustrate the various aspects of an individual's self-concept based on what is known to themselves and what is known to others. It divides information into four "panes": the Open Area (known to self and others), the Blind Area (unknown to self, known to others), the Hidden Area (known to self, unknown to others), and the Unknown Area (unknown to both self and others).

The study of body movements, including gestures, facial expressions, posture, head movements, and eye contact.

This individual behavior describes an individual’s failure to take responsibility for their actions, mistakes, or unfulfilled commitments, often deflecting blame onto others.

This leadership style is characterized by a “hands-off” approach.

An individual who occupies a formal or informal role within a group and is often recognized by others as having the authority or responsibility to guide the group.

Process of influencing a group of people towards the achievement of a common goal.

The specific functions, responsibilities, and behaviors that individuals assume or are assigned when guiding, influencing, and directing a group or organization towards the achievement of shared goals. These roles are multifaceted and can include, but are not limited to, setting vision and strategy, motivating team members, making decisions, fostering collaboration, managing conflict, coaching, mentoring, representing the group, and serving as a role model.

This type of power stems from an individual’s formal position or role within a hierarchy or organization.

A one-way process, where a sender transmits a message to a receiver, with no feedback from the receiver.

An active process of receiving, interpreting, and responding to messages.

The location or source of the cause of a behavior.

A concept which posits that an individual's self-concept is largely shaped by their perceptions of how others see them. This theory emphasizes that our sense of self is not solely an internal construct but is continually influenced and refined through our interpretation of how others perceive and react to us, acting as a "mirror" reflecting our perceived image back to us.

This type of touch conveys deep affection, emotional connection, and often physical attraction between individuals in intimate relationships.

Cultures where there is a preference for more egalitarian relationships and a belief that power should be distributed as evenly as possible.

Cultures where meaning in communication is conveyed primarily through explicit verbal messages, with less reliance on unspoken cues, shared understanding, or the surrounding context. Messages are direct, clear, and precise, as the emphasis is on transmitting information overtly and unambiguously.

The communication behaviors and actions within a group that are focused on building, maintaining, and strengthening internal relationships, group cohesion, and a positive social climate. Unlike task roles, which are directly related to achieving the group's specific objectives, maintenance roles address the emotional and interpersonal needs of the group members.

Requirements that cultivate a healthy and productive group environment, focusing on interpersonal dynamics.

A method where the group votes on a proposed solution, and it implements the solution if more than half of the members vote in favor of it.

Delivering a speech by reading directly from a fully written script.

The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, create, and act using all forms of communication. In a communication context, media literacy involves critically understanding the messages we encounter in various media (such as television, internet, social media, print, and radio), recognizing their potential biases or agendas, and being able to effectively create and disseminate our own messages responsibly. It encompasses the skills needed to navigate the complex and evolving media landscape, fostering informed decision-making and active participation in society.

When a neutral third party remediates disagreements.

Delivering a speech that has been written out word for word and then committed entirely to memory.

The core content being conveyed.

The awareness and control over your own thinking processes during cross-cultural interactions.

Different interpretations of the same message can lead to confusion.

Cultures in which time is viewed as a linear and finite resource, emphasizing doing one task at a time and strict adherence to schedules.

Refers to your interest, drive, and confidence to adapt to new cultural situations.

This individual behavior is characterized by consistently expressing pessimism, complaining frequently, and generally spreading a dispiriting outlook throughout the group.

Any interference that disrupts or distorts the message, preventing it from being accurately received.

The unspoken language that accompanies our words, influencing how messages are received and interpreted.

When a group begins to resolve their differences, develop a sense of cohesion, and establish shared norms, procedures, and expectations for how they will work together. Trust builds, roles become clearer, and the group develops a collective identity.

The observable actions, reactions, and conduct of individuals within a cultural context, which are often influenced by shared beliefs, values, and customs.

Overly accommodating approach might involve consistently sacrificing one’s own needs to satisfy others, even to one’s detriment, out of a desire to please or avoid conflict.

The group member who expresses personal beliefs and opinions and offers suggestions based on values.

The group member who seeks to understand the values and opinions of each group member.

The second stage in the perception process, immediately following selection, where individuals structure and categorize the sensory information they have chosen to pay attention to.

The group member who keeps the group focused, clarifies goals, and redirects discussions.

Neglecting one’s own concerns and failing to express personal needs or opinions.

Communication that is characterized by a reluctance to express one’s needs, opinions, or feelings directly, often leading to avoidance of conflict and the suppression of genuine thoughts. Individuals with low self-esteem or a negative self-concept often adopt this style due to a fear of rejection, conflict, or being perceived as incompetent or unlikeable.

This group behavior involves expressing negative feelings indirectly through subtle hostility, procrastination, sarcasm, or unstated resentment rather than direct confrontation.

Exchanging constructive feedback with other group members.

An active process of interpretation that fundamentally shapes how we communicate and understand the world.

Communication tools designed to enhance understanding and reduce misunderstandings by clarifying one's interpretation of another person's behavior or words.

This process allows our brains to understand our environment and typically unfolds in three interconnected stages: selection, organization, and interpretation.

When a group operates at its most efficient and effective with established norms and strong relationships, members are focused on achieving their common goals.

Physical characteristics and artifacts.

Personal space is the second closest of the four distance zones, typically ranging from 1.5 to 4 feet away from a person.

Inherent or relatively stable features of our bodies, such as height, weight, body type, and natural hair color.

The highness or lowness of a person’s voice.

This group behavior involves constantly complaining about personal difficulties, blaming others for problems, and acting as if everything negative is happening to them.

Cultures in which time is fluid and flexible, often engaging in multiple activities simultaneously and prioritizing relationships over strict adherence to schedules.

Refers to the ability to influence others or control their behavior.

A cultural dimension that describes the extent to which less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. It reflects a society's tolerance for inequality among its members.

Beyond the content itself, the way a presentation is delivered significantly impacts its effectiveness. These elements pertain to the speaker’s performance and use of aids.

A method of organizing a speech or presentation that structures the main points around identifying an issue and then proposing a remedy.

Conflict that occurs when group members disagree about the methods or processes to achieve a goal.

The person who gives the most guidance on how the group operates and progresses through its task.

The group member who handles logistical tasks, such as distributing materials and arranging the meeting space.

Systematically observing and analyzing how the group functions as a whole.

This type of touch is functional and impersonal, often occurring in a professional or service context.

How people use and perceive space, revealing deeply embedded cultural norms that influence appropriate distances in communication.

Public space is the farthest of the four distance zones, beginning at about 12 feet from a person and extending outward.

How quickly or slowly a person speaks.

The target of a message.

This group behavior involves constantly trying to draw attention to oneself, boasting about individual accomplishments, or demanding praise and validation from the group.

The group member who takes notes, documents decisions, and maintains records.

This power is based on an individual’s charisma, likability, respect, or identification by others.

Nonverbal cues that signal when it’s appropriate for someone to speak or when a turn is ending.

Nonverbal cues that duplicate or reiterate the verbal message.

This behavior involves an individual’s refusal to adapt to new ideas, procedures, or technologies, preferring to cling to outdated methods.

A tendency or disposition within an individual to oppose, delay, or actively obstruct modifications to existing behaviors, beliefs, routines, or circumstances. In the context of self-concept, resistance to change often stems from a deeply ingrained sense of self and a preference for familiarity and predictability.

Refers to whether a person had control over the cause of their behavior.

The opposite of coercive power, reward power is derived from the ability to offer positive incentives or benefits to influence behavior.

Mental structures or cognitive frameworks that individuals use to organize and interpret information about the world, people, events, and themselves. Developed through past experiences and learning, schemas act as mental shortcuts, influencing what we select to pay attention to, how we organize that information, and ultimately how we interpret it.

Refers to whether the cause of a behavior is widespread or limited in its influence.

The initial stage in the perception process, where individuals consciously or unconsciously choose which sensory stimuli to attend to from the vast array of information available in their environment. This process is influenced by various factors, including the intensity of the stimulus, its novelty, repetition, personal relevance, needs, interests, and current emotional state.

Focusing on specific aspects of a message while ignoring others.

The way we perceive and evaluate ourselves.

This group behavior occurs when a group member uses the group as a platform for personal therapy, sharing inappropriate or irrelevant personal problems.

An individual's overall subjective evaluation of their own worth or value. It represents the degree to which one likes, accepts, and respects themselves, and is a fundamental component of self-concept.

A phenomenon where an individual's expectation or belief about a situation or another person influences their own behavior, which in turn causes the expected outcome to occur, thereby confirming the original belief. In the context of self-concept, this means that our beliefs about ourselves (e.g., "I'm not good at public speaking") can lead us to behave in ways that confirm that belief (e.g., avoid practice, become anxious during a presentation), ultimately leading to the predicted negative outcome.

The process of thoughtfully examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and experiences to gain a deeper understanding of oneself.

A cognitive tendency where we attribute our own successes to internal, stable factors (like our abilities) and our failures to external, unstable factors (like bad luck).

The originator of a message.

Convictions, tenets, or assumptions that a group of people collectively hold to be factual, real, or true about the world, themselves, and reality.

Collective principles, ideals, or standards that a group of people collectively hold to be important, good, or right.

Involves using clear signals like “First,” “Second,” or “Finally.” These simple verbal cues help organize your thoughts and provide a clear roadmap for your audience.

Often referred to as a working or rough outline, a simple outline is your initial sketch of the speech’s structure. It typically uses keywords or brief phrases to denote main points and perhaps major sub-points.

Asserting that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related, usually negative events, without providing sufficient evidence for this domino effect.

The process by which individuals evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and self-worth by comparing themselves to others. This can involve comparing oneself to peers, role models, or even idealized images presented in media.

This theory asserts that individuals have an innate drive to evaluate their own opinions, abilities, and self-worth by comparing themselves to others. When objective, non-social means of evaluation are unavailable, people turn to social comparisons to reduce uncertainty and gain a more accurate understanding of themselves.

Social space is the third of the four distance zones, extending from 4 to 12 feet away from a person.

This category includes touches that are part of polite social interaction and are generally impersonal.

A clear purpose acts as the compass for your entire presentation. It ensures that every element aligns with a specific goal, whether to inform, persuade, or entertain.

Refers to whether the cause of a behavior is consistent over time or temporary.

The group member who sets and maintains standards for group behavior and performance. Helps the group establish norms and expectations.

Applying generalized assumptions about a group to an individual.

When a group works through tensions, establishes trust, and learns how to manage differences productively.

Misrepresenting or exaggerating an opponent’s argument to make it easier to attack.

Often the “idea” person or the intellectual driver of the group.

Nonverbal cues that, in some situations, entirely replace verbal messages.

Any information used in a speech or presentation to illustrate, clarify, prove, or add interest to the speaker's main points and arguments. Effective supporting material helps to make a message more credible, understandable, and memorable for the audience.

The feeling of pity or sorrow for someone else's misfortune, suffering, or distress. Unlike empathy, which involves understanding and sharing another's feelings as if they were your own, sympathy is more about feeling compassion or concern for someone from a detached perspective.

A role whose primary function is to help the group accomplish its objectives.

The communication behaviors and actions within a group that are directly focused on facilitating the accomplishment of the group's specific goals and objectives. Unlike maintenance roles, which address group cohesion, task roles are centered on the output and productivity of the group.

Requirements that enable a group to successfully accomplish its shared goals and objectives.

The group member who uses humor or other methods to relieve stress and create a relaxed environment.

The tendency to claim and defend certain physical spaces.

A method of organizing a speech or presentation where the main points are divided into logical and relatively distinct sub-topics or categories related to the overall subject.

A dynamic and interactive model that views communication as a continuous, simultaneous, and reciprocal process where all participants are both senders and receivers of messages. Unlike linear models that depict one-way communication, the transactional model emphasizes that meaning is co-created through the ongoing exchange of verbal and nonverbal cues, with constant feedback loops.

Having little to no regard for the other person’s concerns, prioritizing personal victory or avoidance.

Sounds or words that punctuate pauses in speech, such as “um,” “uh,” “like,” “you know,” or “so.”

Supplemental information that expands the meaning of the verbal delivery. Words, pictures, graphs, and more can emphasize the impact of the message and make it more memorable.

The unique characteristics of a person’s voice, such as breathiness, nasality, raspiness, or a clear, resonant tone.

Also known as paralanguage, vocalics refers to the nonverbal elements of the voice that accompany and often modify the meaning of spoken words.

The loudness or softness of a voice.

This group behavior occurs when a group member disengages from the task, remaining silent, refusing to participate in discussions, or physically distancing themselves from the group’s activities.

The tendency of an individual to exert less effort when working in a group than they would individually, relying on other members to complete the shared responsibilities and carry the workload.